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The Boleo project is located in Mexico close to the town of Santa Rosalia on the Baja Peninsula. The Boleo deposit contains copper, cobalt, zinc and manganese values as oxides with minor sulfides. The Boleo deposit is metallurgically challenging due to: 1) the requirement to recover four separate metals; 2) the presence of high levels of clay in the deposit resulting in difficult solid-liquid separations, and; 3) the need to use seawater for the bulk of the processing. Baja Mining, Bateman Engineering and SGS Lakefield Research have collaborated to develop and test a process flowsheet to recover copper, cobalt, zinc and manganese products at Boleo. The key steps in the flowsheet are: ? Feed preparation (scrubbing and ball milling of oversize) in copper raffinate ? Ore leaching using oxidative and reductive leaching ? CCD washing using high rate thickening technology ? Copper SXlEW ? Treatment of a bleed solution for cobalt, zinc and manganese recovery The process for cobalt, zinc and manganese recovery involves iron and aluminum removal followed by cobalt/zinc bulk extraction using CSIRO's DSX solvent extraction system and selective zinc and cobalt stripping. The zinc strip solution is evaporated to produce zinc sulfate monohydrate crystals to market and cobalt is recovered via a further SXlEW process as high purity metal. Manganese is precipitated as manganese carbonate from the DSX raffinate solution. This paper will review the Boleo process flowsheet and provide detailed results from the 2006 pilot plant operation conducted at SGS Lakefield in Canada.

Jan 1, 2007

By C. M. Offenhauer

Abstract Zirconium markedly affects the formation of graphite in cast iron and may promote the formation of normal flake gaphite, fine flakes of eutectiform graphite, or spheroid nodular graphite, according to the composition of the Iron and the amount of the zirconium addition. Usually, it is employed in the form of a complex addition agent in order to facilitate its introduction and to guide its effect. The reported applications of zirconium as an inoculant for the production of pearlitic high-strength cast iron indicates that it is most effective as a silicon-manganese-zirconium alloy. Added in this form it reduces chill and minimizes zones of ferrite and eutectiform graphite. In low-sulphur cast iron, zirconium in amounts greater than 0.10 per cent tends to promote the development of eutectiform graphite. These irons are characterized by freedom from primary cementite or normal flake graphite and exhibit very little tendency to shrinkage on solidification. In hyper-eutectic low-sulphur cast iron, zirconium causes the formation of a partially nodular graphite structure. A combination of magnesium with silicon-zirconium alloy was found to produce completely nodular graphite structures without the hazards associated with the addition of elemental magnesium.

Jan 1, 1949

By P. O. Sandstrom

"Atlas Copco is introducing a new patented method for full-face boring. This paper presents the basic principles of the boring action and discusses the present experience regarding performance and costs. The Atlas Copco ""Full-facers"" are designed for hard-rock applications, although they are successfully boring in soft ground without major changes. The unique patented boring principle referred to as the 'Undercutting Method' permits these machines to bore, economically, in harder ground than machines based on the 'crushing principle'. This is mainly due to considerably lower cutting-tool costs, as the tungsten carbide tips only are in contact with one-third of the bored volume. The remaining rock is 'undercut' and peels off from a slight back pressure.The undercutting method also permits boring of non-circular headings and Atlas Copco has already manufactured two machines for rectangular drifts. This concept could revolutionize development work in mines employing trackless equipment."

Jan 1, 1971

By A. G. Pentland

PROSPECTING is popularly supposed to be surrounded with an air of romance and adventure. The word 'prospecting' brings to mind high mountains, northern lakes, and aeroplanes. A note of urgency has been added to this by the war, particularly in the case of strategic, minerals. Prospecting for strategic minerals in a modern mine in full production, although it may Jack the romance of travel in little-known places, has the advantage of having all the necessary machinery at hand and ready to go into action at a moment's notice. HISTORY Tin was discovered in the Sullivan ore in 1925, when a white streak was noticed on a pilot table which was being used to check the amount of galena in the tailing. The mineral which made up this streak was identified as cassiterite. The amount of tin in the ore is so small that, while of scientific interest, it was considered to be of very little economic importance. Nevertheless, several attempts were made to learn something of the occurrence during times when other work was nor pressing. These studies were dropped when anything came up that seemed more important.

Jan 1, 1943

By W. A. Lang

Introduction That the coal industry has entered a new phase in its development is now evident. Coal, besides being the chief source of heat and power, has become a potential raw material for many industries. Rapid progress has been made in the methods used in the mining and preparation of coal, and in the equipment for the burning of coal. Data of a fundamental nature relating to the composition of coal and to its transformations? during combustion and processing have also been revealed. Research, the key which has opened this new era, has already accomplished much, but it has only begun to show what it may and should be able to do. New developments of coal burning equipment, super-power plants, carbonizing and briquetting plants, hydrogenation and synthetic chemical processes, will undoubtedly have a marked influence in the post-war years on the economic welfare of many coal producing countries. Until comparatively recently, however, there has been in many branches of the coal industry a tendency to regard research as something abstruse and something which had little or no value to those managing such branches. But the fact that coal has suffered as a source of heat and energy through inroads of oil, natural gas, and water power, has made it plain to the industry that, if it is to maintain its present markets in this competitive world, much less increase them, the whole industry must be willing to follow the example of other industries and plan for the future.

Jan 1, 1946

By Henry F. Hebley

THE solid fuel industry, especially that branch represented by bituminous coal, is gradually becoming aware of its ? paramount importance in a world where there is an ever increasing demand for the products of a mechanical age. In practically every process of manufacture, the necessity for energy in some form is being multiplied. Some of that prime energy is derived from water power-hydro-electric schemes, flood control schemes, etc. - but often the electrical energy thus developed is generated at great distances from the load centres, requiring long transmission lines with consequent transformer and transmission losses. A few plants have harnessed the tidal power of the seas and one has harnessed the energy of the wind in a modern manner. All of these schemes are dependent on certain natural geographical, hydrographical, and physical advantages of terrain, as well as an adequate area of consumption of the energy developed. If flood control is the primary object, then power generation is a by-product; and the economics of large capital expenditure on power generating equipment must be considered in that light.

Jan 1, 1945

By G. O. Crowell

This paper gives the history of the celestite deposit, now being mined by Kaiser Celestite Mining Ltd., near Sydney, Nova Scotia. Mining and milling procedures are covered, and the regional and local geology of the area are described, including the origin of the celestite.

Jan 1, 1971

By A. McIntyre, L. R. Plitt

Both the Bond and the Hardgrove grindability tests are widely used in the mineral industry to measure the ease of the comminution displayed by a material. The Hardgrove test is mainly used for coals, whereas the Bond grindabifity test is mainly applied to hardrock minerals. The Bond grindability has the advantage that it can be empirically related to the energy required for comminution (work index), whereas the Hardgrove grindabifity test has the advantage of being easier to perform. In an effort to establish a valid correlation between work index and Hardgrove grindability, a series of parallel grindability tests were carried out on a wide variety of rocks and minerals. The standard Hardgrove test was modified to allow for materials with a higher density than coal. A new, satisfactory relationship was established which permits rapid estimation of work index from Hardgrove test data.

Jan 1, 1980

By P. S. Daly

"The purpose of this paper is to describe the types of instrumentation used at Sherritt Gordon's Ruttan Mine to monitor the"" effects of mining. The aim of the monitoring program is to establish parameters to achieve a maximum ore recovery with minimum dilut ion in a safe environment.The copper-zinc Ruttan Mine is in northwestern Manitoba, approximately 760 km from Winnipeg (Fig . I) . Production commenced in 1973 from the open pit at the rate of 10,000 tons per day. Pit bottom lies 58 metres above the first mine level. Underground development has overlapped with open-pit mining throughout. The open pit was phased out in the latter part of 1980.Underground production began in early 1979. The mining method employed in the first lift is sub-level blasthole open stoping with delayed hydraulic filling. Large-diameter (6.5-in.) holes are being drilled in the crop stope area and are also planned for some other areas for vertical retreat mining into a slot. GeologyThe orebody consists of numerous sulphide lenses of variable size, geometry and geology . The lenses occur within volcanoclastic host rocks which exhibit a strong variability in intensity and type of alteration and structural characteristics. Stope design and sequencing were based on these complex geological factors."

Jan 1, 1981

By P. D. P. Hamilton

IT is perhaps obvious to most individuals who are interested in the mining industry that a producing mine has been subjected to several phases of engineering attention. In this paper it is the author's hope that a thoughtful survey of these various engineering phases will emphasize certain points of value and interest which may sometimes be overlooked. The points which we will bring out are being made in an analytical sense and are not in any way a reflection on any individuals or organizations which might see in these illustrations a similarity co chair particular conditions. In other words, we are drawing on our general experience to illustrate the points which we chink are worthy of mention, and which we believe are of a type sufficiently frequent co be emphasized. It is well co point out chat, in this paper, we are not concerned with the relative importance of such theoretical questions as to whether or not a geologisc is more important than a prospector, or the office manager than the surface foreman. We are, however, interested in analyzing the various types of engineering experience required in the bringing of a mining enter-prise from the early prospect stage in co-production, and their importance to the project as a whole. In order to simplify our analysis of the subject, it has seemed best to outline a simple mining organization. In using the terms 'industry' and 'business', we feel chat frequently those engaged in mining do not always appreciate that mining is actually an endeavour, or a business, which has the same economic fundamentals as any other business. In the mining industry, the field and producing engineering are counter-parts of the research and production phases of any other type of business. Once this is realized, it is fairly obvious that mining, like any other industry, is a matter of economically acquiring raw materials, processing them, and finally marketing the resultant commodities as favourably as possible. The points may be discussed in a little more detail as follows.

Jan 1, 1938

By R. F. Engler

"IntroductionThe Coal Branch region of west-central Alberta has been the focal point for unprecedented exploration and development activities over the past ten years prompted by the renewed markets for high-quality thermal coal. Although mines were developed and operated extensively throughout the region from 1910 until 1960, information relating to the detailed stratigraphy of the coal measures and their areal distribution tended to be localized to individual mine sites. Continuity along trend was impaired by a paucity of outcrop restricting geologic mapping to stream bank and roadside exposures. Recent studies and subsequent publications by Jerzykiewicz and McLean of the Geological Survey of Canada (1978, 1980) have established a detailed sedimentological model and defined the stratigraphic nomenclature for the region . The term Coalspur Beds has been adopted to describe the coal-bearing sequence between the overlying Paskapoo Formation and underlying Brazeau Formation. Complete sections of the Coalspur Beds have been compiled from sub-surface borehole data and published by Manalta Coal Ltd ., Dentherm Resources Ltd. and Luscar Stereo Ltd. This paper is an attempt to correlate this information on a regional basis to illustrate trends within the Coalspur Beds."

Jan 1, 1986

By C. H. Stockwell

THE Eastern Townships of Quebec have been the chief Canadian source of chromite. Production, however, has never been large and, except for a period of steady but small output between 1894 and 1909, mining has been active only in war time. The known deposits are too small or too low grade to compete with overseas sources in normal times. During the last war, shipping difficulties and a greatly increased demand in the United States resulted in high prices and a ready market for low-.grade material. The Quebec chromite industry flourished and played an important part in relieving the wartime shortage. Shipments in 1918 .amounted to 15,600 tons of crude ore and 6,400 tons of concentrates. At the outbreak of the present war it was natural to turn again to the Quebec field as a possible source of this strategic mineral. Some of the old properties have since been opened by private and government money and some new deposits have been found. Total mill capacity is 750 tons per day, as compared with 200 to 300 tons in 1918. During 1940, 1941, and 1942, about 85 chromite deposits were examined by the Geological Survey in a belt 100 miles long and up to 7 miles wide. A part of this belt, about 35 miles long, in which the geological features ?were not well known, was mapped on a scale of 1/2; mile to an inch.? Small ..areas around some of the deposits were mapped in detail, on scales of 20 to 200 feet to an inch. Some geophysical work was done but did not result in the discovery of ore. Prospecting by stripping and trenching was then undertaken and chromite ore was uncovered at several localities. The above work was done by the writer and by J. W. Ambrose, who has kindly contributed his results for incorporation in this paper. Y. O. Fortier actd as assistant in the geological work and, in 1942, was in charge of a sub-party engaged in geological mapping. The author is indebted to H. C. Cooke and J. W. Ambrose for reading the original manuscript and for offering many helpful suggestions for its improvement.

Jan 1, 1944

By J. W. Griffith

"The mines in the Bancroft area of southeastern Ontario, a few kilometres west of the town of Bancroft, are in Faraday and Cardiff Townships. Three companies, known as Canadian Dyno Mines Limited, Macassa Gold Mines Limited (Bicroft Division) and Madawaska Mines Limited (formerly Faraday Uranium Mines Limited), with plants capable of handling a total of 4,()()() tons (3,629 tonnes) of ore a day, were at one time in production. A fourth company, Greyhawk Uranium Mines Limited, operated a small mine whose ore was shipped for custom treatment to the nearby Faraday mill. Canadian Dyno Mines Limited ceased operations in June 1960. In June 1963 the Bicroft Mine was closed and a year later Faraday closed because of contract completion. But in 1975, Faraday (now called Madawaska) was re-opened but closed again in 1982. During 1959, the peak year, these four mines produced an estimated 1,100 tons (998 tonnes) of uranium precipitates, which represented nearly 7 per cent of Canada's output for that year(Fig. 1).The deposits occur in pegmatitic granite dykes in a region of high-grade metamorphic and metasomatic rocks. Uranium distribution is usually controlled by the distribution of mafic minerals, particularly hematite and magnetite, and by late fractures. The best visual indicators for uranium concentration are hematite staining in the pegmatite, followed by the amount of mafic inclusions or crystals. The Bancroft area orebodies are the only known deposits of the general pegmatitic class in Canada that contained economic deposits of uranium. The principal radioactive minerals are uraninite and uranothorite. By comparison with many other pegmatitic occurrences, some of the ore bodies are unusually large, persistent in depth and relatively rich in uranium minerals. At the end of 1981, total ore reserves were estimated at 1,500,00 short tons (1,360, 000 tonnes) averaging 0.11 % U3O8."

Jan 1, 1986

By Karla Kaboth, Brad Garraway

"The surface of many concentrate thickeners has traditionally looked like that of a flotation cell. Over the last three years Normandy Golden Grove Concentrator, in partnership with Outokumpu Technology have developed and implemented an innovative breakthrough deaeration technology to address this problem.When installed in the thickener feedline, the system successfully detached air bubbles adhering to the solid particles and removed air bubbles from the feed stream, subsequently presenting a fully deaerated feed to the thickener feedwell.Tests to date have shown an 80% reduction in overflow solids. As a result, costs associated with concentrate loss and measures to recover concentrate that settles in process tanks and ponds have been minimized.MOTIVATIONIt is recognised in mineral processing operations that the entrainment of finely divided air in thickener feeds can cause significant problems in the operation of a thickener. This is particularly the case with thickening of flotation concentrates, in which air bubbles are strongly attached to the mineral particles and are difficult to remove. Such particles attached to fine air bubbles rise to the thickener surface, and hence over the weir and into the thickener overflow. High solids carryover can lead to a direct loss of mineral product, and if the product settles in process water tanks and ponds, the recovery of this product by means of intermittent dredging operations is usually expensive and inconvenient.Many concentrate thickeners are fitted with devices which attempt to alleviate this problem. Froth rings or baffles, skimmers and froth sprays, all play a part in reducing the amount of solids carried over into the overflow. However, many froths are very stable and persist despite these measures. In the worst cases, a thick froth layer forms which builds up to a depth greater than the froth ring, and hence may overflow or pass beneath the ring . Any concentrate that finds its way past the froth ring can also cause blockage of the overflow weir and launder, and has the potential to upset clarification performance by cutting off sections of the overflow handling system. The formation of a froth layer on the thickener also makes it more difficult for the operator to monitor the clarification performance."

Jan 1, 2001

By Richard E. J. Putman

THE MINERALS INDUSTRY has always been a heavy user of energy in most of its unit operations: power in the mining, comminution, flotation and electro-winning processes; fuel in its smelting and other metallurgical processes; and, of course, fuel in the on-site generation of power and steam. Many of the techniques for using computers to perform energy management and conservation tasks have been known for some time, but they have not been widely implemented because the return on investment has hitherto been insufficient. Recent trends, however, have not only caused the dollar return to rise due to higher purchased energy costs, but the cost of the investment to fall. One trend has been the generally lower cost of computer control systems themselves, due to vendors having adopted the newer, lower-cost and more reliable electronic component technologies now becoming universally available. The second trend is the development of low-cost, but high-speed, remote multiplexing devices, which have reduced considerably the expense of bringing data from points scattered over a wide area, which is typically the case when applying energy management systems to a minerals processing plant. By taking advantage of these and related developments, computer control systems can now have a rewarding impact on plant energy management and conservation practices, and recent advances in application technology have opened up new and additional opportunities for energy cost reduction and control.

Jan 1, 1978

By J. R. Giegerich

"IntroductionMINING operators in common with other operators are confronted today with two serious problems, shortage of experienced workmen and rising costs. The following review of practices at the Sullivan mine of The Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada, Limited, outlines certain measures that have been responsible, during recent years, for minimizing the effect of these two problems. The paper is divided into three main sections:( 1) Training programmes and job studies( 2) Improved mechanization and equipment( 3) Large-scale methods of operationTraining Programmes and Job StudiesJob TrainingJob training courses were introduced at Cominco immediately after the last war and proved to be a great benefit to the operations. There were three courses given, Job Instruction Training, Job Safety Training, and .Job Relations Training. These were spread over a period of two years and were taken by all operating supervisors and some key operators.The courses were introduced by a trained instructor from the British Columbia Department of Labour. This man trained twelve of our employees as instructors by giving them an intensive one-week course. Similarity between the three courses was such that the instructors trained in the first one were very readily trained for instruction in the two succeeding courses."

Jan 1, 1952

Abstract-This paper discusses the fundamental question, "what is an adequate sample size?" in the light of recent developments regarding parameters of Gy’s well-known formula for predicting sampling variance. New understanding of the granulometric factor, g, and the liberation factor, l, had significant impact on the results of calculations involving Gy’s equation. For the granulometric factor, justifications are given as to why nominal comminution size should always be reported as P95 (i.e., the screen size rejecting 95% of the mass). A small but important change in the model to estimate the liberation factor makes the difference between a predictive formula that works or does not. Other parameters and considerations regarding their practical implementation are commented upon in light of the author’s experience.

Jan 1, 1998

By M. E. Holter

"Five main lignite seams occur in the Tertiary Ravenscrag Formation in the Eastevan area, at depths of 100 feet or less. They are named, in ascending order: the Boundary, Estevan, Souris, Roche Percee and Short Creek seams. A total sequence of approximately 250 feet is represented by the coal beds and interstratified clays, silts and sands. Strata dip to the southeast at 25 feet per mile or less and trike northeast. Large areas underlain by coal seams at shallow depths are delineated. Reserve calculations are dependent on detailed information on seam thicknesses and feasible stripmining depths. The stratigraphically higher seams are thinner on the average than lower seams and this, together with the increase in elastic size fractions in higher strata, suggests a retreat of a Tertiary marine margin to the south during the closing depositional history of coal seams and associated strata."

Jan 1, 1972

By C. Yoo

"Geosynthetics engineering has made phenomenal advances during the last decade in areas of manufacturing as well as practical applications. As a result, geosynthetics are now being recognized as essential construction materials that can be used to facilitate construction, ensure better performance of the structures and reduce the long-term maintenance in routine civil engineering works. The creative use of geosynthetics in geo-engineering practice is expected to continuously expand as innovative materials and products are becoming available. In this paper, a wide variety of geosynthetic products available to geoengineers to solve a wide range of problems are briefly presented along with their functions and possible applications. Fundamentals of geotextile filter design principles are then introduced for use in the tunnel drainage system. Practical applications of geosynthetics relevant for tunnel engineering are also highlighted with emphasis on the issues associated with the geotextile filter application for use in the tunnel drainage system.INTRODUCTIONGeosynthetics have emerged as essential engineering materials in a wide range of civil engineering applications, e.g., transportation, geotechnical, geoenvironmental, hydraulics, and private development since the first geosynthetic conference in Paris, 1977 (Koerner 2012). Due to their costeffectiveness, ease of installation, and well established mechanical and hydraulic properties, geosynthetics are now playing important roles in the field of geo-engineering.As indicated in the 9th Bucahanan Lecture paper by Holtz (2001), major developments in civil engineering have only been possible with the parallel developments in the technology of construction materials. For example, larger scale structures became possible with the help of developments in concrete, reinforced concrete, and prestressed reinforced concrete technology which replaced wood and building stone as construction materials. The best example of a parallel development in geo-engineering between the material and the geotechnical application may perhaps be the soil reinforcement technology which has a direct analogy with reinforced concrete as a polymeric reinforcement material provides added level of tensile resistance and stability to soils that have little to no tensile strength, thus giving additional margin of safety."

Jan 1, 2015

By David E. Pearson

"Western Canadian coking coals are located in the Rocky Mountains arid foothills of British Columbia and Alberta. They are typical of non-marine coals, characterized by total sulphur contents of less than one per cent and with ash contents of 10-30 weight per cent. This mineral matter is composed principally of kaolinite and quartz.The petrographic compositions of most of the coking coals which constitute the 2.065 billion tonnes of British Columbia's measured reserves, and the compositions of the metallurgical coal currently exported from Alberta, show them to be rich in the inertinite macerals, macrinite, fusinite and semifusinite. When the mean maximum reflectance of vitrinite in oil/Romax) is used as the coal rank parameter, this high inertinite content is reflected in the lower volatile-matter yields, but the relatively inert character is also displayed by lower free swelling indices (PSI), lower maximum dilatations, lower maximum fluidities and lower coke strengths than other coals of the same rank, but richer in the reactive macerals, vitrinite, exinite and semifusinite. Despite these reduced values in the so-called caking tests, inertinite-rich coals produce strong coke.A system of classification of coking coals is introduced which is based on rank, as indicated by Ro max, and either petrographic composition, maximum dilatation, maximum fluidity or, to a lesser extent, PSI and volatile-matter yield. Six principal coal groups can be distinguished among coking coals using this versatile classification. Inertinite-rich coals are assigned to the Keystone Group (GI), Balmer Group (G3) or Moura Group (G4), each group being named for a coal typical of that population ofcoals. Reactive-rich coals are assigned to the Pittston Group (G2), Kellerman Group (G5) or Big Ben Group (G6). A multiple-regression analysis of coal quality versus price shows how the value of coking coal in the Japanese market appears to be related to reflectance and the free swelling index, and confirms the economic viability of the classification.British Columbia's measured reserves of coking coal contain representatives of four of these groups; Balmer Group (73%), Moura Group (/6%), Pittston Group (3.4%) and Kellerman Group (7.6%).This analysis of the quality of Western Canadian coking coal indicates that despite the need for large proportions of inertinite-rich coking coal in blends produced in the Japanese steel industry, there is nevertheless a demonstrated overabundance of Balmer Group and Moura Group coals available to the international coking coal market."

Jan 1, 1980