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By C. Wildman

Prospectivity modeling of seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits has been completed over the Kermadec Arc-Colville Ridge area using the GIS based weights of evidence and fuzzy logic modeling techniques. SMS deposits are the current equivalent of ancient onshore volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) ore deposits. These high-grade deposits are formed on the seafloor and commonly consist of a black smoker and metal rich sediment mound complex resulting from the discharge of hydrothermal fluids (up to 400°C) from fractures on the seafloor. Metal sulphides are continuously precipitated in response to mixing of high-temperature hydrothermal fluids with ambient seawater. Accumulation of metal sulphides has led to SMS deposits being potentially major sources of copper, zinc, lead and other metals such as gold, silver, which to date remain untapped. Modeling of SMS deposits was undertaken to illustrate the power of GIS modeling for seafloor resource evaluation and how it can be used to quickly identify and rank in terms of the most likely prospective areas of the seafloor where new SMS deposits might exist. The mineral deposit modeling was constrained by the mineral systems concept which defines those parts of a mineralisation system that are critical to the ore-forming process. The deposits are typically formed in extensional tectonic settings, including both submerged tectonic margins and sea-floor spreading. Volcanic vent systems and underlying dykes, stocks and sills are the sources of heat that are responsible for converting sea water drawn down through fractures in the oceanic crust into an ore-forming hydrothermal fluid. This fluid is then capable of leaching metals and elements from surrounding footwall rocks, which are then transported upwards via the convection of hydrothermal fluids. The ore materials are then precipitated within the black smoker field as massive sulphides due to the mixing of high-temperature (250-400°C), metal-rich hydrothermal fluids with cold (about 2°C) oxygen bearing seawater.

Jan 1, 2011

By S. Rajendran

India?s interest in the resources of the deep seabed particularly the manganese nodules in the Indian Ocean can be traced back to the Indian Ocean Expedition of 1960 ? 65. The collection of Manganese Nodule samples from the Indian Ocean in January 1981 aroused considerable interest within the scientific community. Following several surveying expeditions, the Central Indian Ocean was identified as the most promising area for exploitation. India was accorded ?Pioneer Investor? status and further research and development programs were launched to establish the techno-economic viability of deep seabed mining. India has also shown considerable progress in the field of development and testing of methods for processing the nodules. The Department of Ocean Development manages the program.

Jan 1, 2003

By Alexander Malahoff

The most exciting frontier in Ocean Technology is represented by a new class of Marine Bioproducts, the source of which lies in marine microorganisms. The microorganisms include microalgae, bacteria and archaea. These organisms represent very diverse, adaptive life forms and in their metabolic processes use carotenoids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, ultraviolet blockers, as well as a wide range of enzymes that are pivotal in the production of new pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. These organisms cover a wide spectrum of ocean environments, from the shallow to the deep, from the normal to the extreme. The technological challenge is in the identification of candidate organisms, in the screening for valuable enzymes, and in the industrial production. A whole new range of collecting strategies involving submersibles, ROVs and in situ ocean floor instrumentation is emerging. New non-polluting industrial chemical processes involving the use of photobioreactors and extremophile bioreactors for breeding and monitoring these organisms in neo-farming technology is emerging. The commercial value of these candidate products is immense, as is the range of potential organisms. The dimension of this new industry is global. The Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center (MarBEC), funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), has been established at the University of Hawaii. The vision of MarBEC is to develop a seamless research system stretching from undergraduate education to industry for the purposes of producing valuable marine bioproducts outside of the normal chemical factory production. MarBEC is uniquely and strategically placed in the Pacific to explore, find, and adapt highly bioactive marine micro-organisms found in the tropical ocean. We have watched the increasing need by the ever-

Jan 1, 2000

By Henk van Muijen

From an interesting and intriguing scientific research topic, deep sea mining has altered into an interesting mining prospect over the last years. Ten years ago most of the focus was on geological investigations, searching for typical deep sea deposits and getting answers on where we can find them and how these deposits were formed. At this moment we know much more about the interesting deposit possibilities and with our quest for minerals, metals and other materials to feed global economic growth, answers as to the technical and economic feasibility to mine these deposits are sought. This is not a new phenomenon as we already witnessed such question late 1970?s and early 1980?s. Most of the focus was on mining manganese nodules and brines in the Red Sea driven by the report of the Club of Rome that predicted shortages in near future at that time. Development went different, but later in the 1990?s a rival of interest could be noticed for mining deep sea deposits.

Jan 1, 2010

By Elizabeth McIsaac, Wylie Spicer

"In July 2016 the International Seabed Authority (the “ISA”) released a first working draft of its mineral exploitation regulations as well as the standard contract terms for mineral resources in the Area, for which stakeholder input was sought in late 2016. In January of 2017 the ISA released a discussion paper on environmental matters related to these draft regulations. The ISA is now in the process of further developing its draft exploitation regulations and standard contract terms to ensure that seabed mining is carried out in an environmentally sound way for the common benefit of mankind.As the regulator of the “Area”, the ISA can draw lessons from onshore mining regulators and offshore petroleum regulators for their experiences in legislative drafting to smoothly and safely oversee project development, implementation, and closure. However, one of the unique challenges that the ISA faces in regulating private industry is its status as an international organization and not a sovereign nation, which results in a significantly different legal relationship between the regulator and the regulated. The result is that the exploitation contract is the sole legal connection between the mining proponent and the regulator for the exploitation phrase of the project.Accordingly, in the regulatory development process, the ISA must carefully consider which rights and obligations are set out in the exploitation contract versus the regulations. This decision will dictate the flexibility the ISA will have to modernize the conduct required of mining proponents in response to changing best practices in the industry, technological progress, and advances in the understanding of the marine ecosystem. As the first working draft of the exploitation regulations sets out an initial contract period of twenty years, it is crucial for the ISA to carefully consider the rights, obligations, and procedures it agrees to in the exploitation contract, as unilateral amendment will not be possible after contract execution."

Jan 1, 2017

By Alexander Malahoff

Mineral zonation studies were conducted on hydrothermal vents of two hot spot volcanoes. One study site is located within the Axial Caldera of the axial hot spot volcano of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. The young high-temperature hydrothermal vent field consisting of two polymetallic sulfide chimneys, five meters high, located at 130°01.5'W, 45°56.5'N, along a fault complex at the base of the southwestern wall of Axial Caldera was sampled during four ALVIN dives in 1983. Temperatures of up to 270°C were measured within the orifice of one of the chimneys, which was then broken off and recovered with the submersible. Both black and white "smoke" was observed to be emanating from the one chimney sampled. The high-temperature chimney extends directly from a field of broken lobate lavas which are located at a water depth of 1,550 meters, about 200 meters east of the caldera wall. The chimney makes one of the shallowest active high-temperature vents studied to date. The vent is surrounded by clumps of vestimentiferan worms and is located within an elongate field of red-colored iron smectite blankets and chimneys. The low-temperature field forms a ribbon 150 meters wide, extending for about 1,300 meters at the base of the wall. Chemical analyses of the hydrothermal deposits ranging from the polymetallic sulfides of the chimney to the outer zones of the low-temperature field show a range of elemental assemblages consistent with temperature zonation around the vent. Chemical zonation within the high-temperature

Jan 1, 1988

By Gregory Abramov

Borehole Mining (BHM), a remotely-operated waterjet mining method (Figure 1), has recently achieved two major milestones. It was, for the first time, applied to the extraction of manganese ore and at temperatures below freezing. The 1St stage is a demonstration test that is now underway just north of Emily, Minnesota, where the manganese ore is located 100-160m below the surface and its reserves are estimated to be in excess of 500,000 tons. The deposit was discovered over 60 years ago but, due to the fragile and sensitive nature of this Land of 10,000 Lakes (nickname for the State of Minnesota) and strong environmental restrictions, the iron/manganese reserves were deemed unrecoverable and remained untouched until late 2010 when permission for a single-hole demo-test was issued by the local Department of Natural Resources.

Jan 1, 2011

By Mayumy Amparo Cabrera-Ramírez

Polymetallic nodules are a widespread resource in the Pacific Ocean, particularly in the areas of Clarion-Clipperton (Cronan, 2000). The most abundant mineral phases are forme d by iron and manganese oxides, with minor elements such as nickel, copper, cobalt, molybdenum and rare earths elements (Cronan, 1977; Cronan and Moorby, 1981; Iyer and Sharma, 1990; Mangini et al. 1990; Banerjee et al. 1991). In the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), several authors mention that there are three main mineral species of manganese oxides, which have been recognized and which are associated with different processes of formation: todorokita (Mn2+, Ca, Mg) Mn3 4+ O7. H2), vernadite dMnO and birnessite enriched in Fe and (Na, Ca) 0.5 (Mn4+, Mn3+) 2O4. 1.5 H2O. In nodules of hydrothermal origin have been found todorokite, birnessite, vernadite, goethite and pyrolusite. Although there are many oxides and hydroxides of manganese and iron in amorphous and microcrystalline phases that make up the bulk of the nodule (Frondel et al. 1960; Cronan 1977; Dymond 1981; Calvert and Piper, 1984; Aplin and Cronan, 1985; Martin and Lallier, 1993; Achurra et al. 2009), identifying specific mineral phases is difficult due to the intergrowth of different phases and associated detrital material.

Sep 14, 2011

By LeRon E. Bielak

Public Law 103-426 was signed into law in October 1994. Its provisions amended sections 8(k) and 20(a) of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA). The 8(k) amendment provides the Secretary of the U.S. Department of the Interior 001) with new discretionary authority to negotiate agreements for using Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) sand, gravel, and shell resources for certain projects of public benefit (e.g, beach, shoreline and coastal wetlands restoration that are under- taken by a Federal, State or local government agency). The new law also covers construction projects that are funded wholly or in part or authorized by the Federal Government. Under the law, the Secretary may assess a fee for use of the resource by taking into consideration the value of the resource and the public interest served. The law also requires that any Federal agency proposing to make use of OCS sand, gravel, or shell resources enter into a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with the DOI. An MOA would promote efficient coordination and resolution of inter- agency scheduling and issues. The law requires that Congress be notified before use is made of these OCS resources. The amendment to section 20(a) of the OCSLA clarifies that obligations concerning environmental studies extend to non- competitive lease situations and includes minerals other than oil and gas. The Minerals Management Service (MMS) is the DO1 agency responsible for interpreting and implementing the provisions of Public Law 103-426. The negotiated agreement approach is distinctly different from the competitive bidding requirements that have applied to all OCS minerals since the inception of the OCSLA. The MMS has opted to implement the new law in a nontraditional manner. Rather than issuinga body of new regulations to cover the negotiated agreement situation, or attempting to amend three sets of existing regulations, MMS is pursuing a less formal approach of providing guidelines. More weight is placed on the negotiation process itself and the legal agreement that consummates the process as the means for establishing ground rules, terms, and conditions under which qualifying projects may be conducted. This process must recognize and adhere to requirements of other laws, including the National Environmental Policy Act.

Jan 1, 1995

By Andrea Koschinsky

Ferromanganese crusts have traditionally been considered a potential ore for Co, whereas ferromanganese nodules have typically been considered a potential ore for Ni and Cu. However, both nodules and crusts sequester high concentrations of many metals (Table 1) from sediment pore waters and seawater, many of which are essential for high-tech applications. The resource potential of these rare and valuable metals is poorly known and they are the subject of considerable current research. The need for adequate and dependable supplies of these metals is essential for the development of new technologies. The rare-earth elements have recently received much attention in the scientific and popular press because of their use in so many high-tech applications and because more than 95% of the production comes from China (e.g., Service 2010); consequently, there is concern about the possibility of a significant decrease or even curtailment in exports from China. The lack of a primary source and the inadequate supply of Te have prohibited the development of a Cd-Te photovoltaic solar-cell industry (Hein et al. 2010). Inadequate supplies of many of the elements listed in Table 1 are limiting the development of key high-tech industries, forcing the use of alternative metals that [ ] may result in less efficiency or less favorable properties for a product. The rare-earth elements, Te, and other elements listed in Table 1 occur in high abundances in marine hydrogenetic and diagenetic ferromanganese deposits. Here, we look at the mechanisms by which these rare and valuable metals are incorporated into different genetic types of marine ferromanganese deposits.

Jan 1, 2010

By Harry J. Olson

Geothermal Energy has a great potential for meeting the electrical and thermal energy requirements of many countries and territories lying along tectonically active zones within and surrounding the Pacific Basin. Energy requirements for many of these small, scattered volcanic island nations preclude development of conventional generating facilities large enough to incorporate any economies of scale. However, by attempting to discover and develop shallow, relatively low temperature, geothermal reservoirs associated with recent vulcanism on many of the volcanic islands, exploration expenditures and risks, and problems associated with the development of high temperature resources can be reduced. Exploration and development drilling for these resources can be accomplished with truck mounted rotary drilling rigs that are less costly and more suitable for operations within the island infrastructures than the conventional rigs normally used in the drilling of deep, high temperature geothermal resources. Experience over the past decade with small, modular, binary (Rankine) cycle generating units indicates that geothermal energy can provide a reliable source of baseload electricity in the amounts required and at a cost that is competitive with other alternative and conventional energy sources. Development of shall, moderate temperature, geothermal resources with small, modular binary cycle generating units can provide ideal additions to the energy sources of many of the Pacific volcanic island nations within the framework of their island economies.

Jan 1, 1991

By Alexander Malahoff

Six active Kermadec Arc submarine volcanoes located between 34°S and 36°30?S were mapped and sampled by an interdisciplinary inter-institutional research team between April and July 2005 using submersibles Pisces V and Pisces IV aboard the mother ship the RV Kai?mikai-O-Kanaloa. The purpose of the expedition was to study the relationship between hydrothermal activity, formation of hydrothermal mineral deposits and the biodiversity of life associated with the hydrothermal vents. Of the volcanoes examined, all showed evidence of hydrothermal activity, plume production and helium anomalies. Only two of the volcanoes, namely Brothers and Clark, showed chimneys and surficial poly-metallic sulphide deposition. Hydrothermal venting at a water depth of 1700 meters within the base of the northern wall of the summit caldera of Brothers Volcano has produced a field of chimneys, some of them 5 metres high with black smokers venting. Temperatures of 300°C were measured within the active vents. Clark Volcano has a double cone summit at a water depth of 875 metres. The shallowest cone has a near-summit hydrothermal vent field with 5-meter high venting chimneys and smaller structures around the periphery. Water temperatures of 200°C. Geochemical and petrological analysis of the massive poly-metallic sulphide samples taken from Brothers and Clark show a diversity of mineralogy. This diversity is clearly a function of hydrothermal water temperature. Chimneys sampled from Brothers are pyrite and sphalerite dominant with lesser chalcopyrite. Sulphides from Clark Volcano tend to be barite rich with lesser sphalerite and pyrite. Sulphides from Brothers Volcano have a range in gold composition of 4 to 58 ppb with silver composition of up to 38 ppb. A mineral formation model for the volcanoes suggests hydrothermal fluid boiling within the volcanic edifice for those volcanoes with shallow summits and massive sulphide deposition with the edifice as well. Surficial deposits include native sulphur and lower temperature oxides. Only the deeper water Brothers Volcano shows massive sulphide deposition along the marginal faults of the caldera floor.

Jan 1, 2005

By G. Rehder

The release of methane as free gas from the seafloor into the water-column well within the hydrate stability field is a natural process observed today in various ocean settings, such as the Cascadia margin, the Black Sea, the Guayamas Basin, and the Gulf of Mexico. The subsequent dissolution of gas bubbles into the water-column determines the vertical distribution of aqueous methane in the water-column and the upwards methane flux. Understanding this process not only is essential to describing the impact of natural deep-sea gas seepage, but also to assessing the hazard potential from blowouts and offshore exploitation activities, which are steadily expanding to greater ocean depths. Furthermore, the fate of methane from seeps contributes to scenarios of global change in the past and future involving the large scale destabilization of gas hydrates on a. We recently reported on the extended lifetime of methane bubbles within the hydrate stability field due to the formation of a hydrate skin (Rehder et al., 2002), based on in situ measurements of methane and argon bubble dissolution in the depth range 400 to 800 m. More recently, these observations were extended to depths from 900 to 1500 m. Single bubbles were injected from the ROV Ventana into an attached, back-illuminated, flow-through imaging box. The ascent of individual bubbles within the imaging box was recorded with Ventana?s HDTV camera system by piloting the 3-ton ROV upward, at the bubble rise velocity, for up to 400 m of vertical transit. Observed rise velocities were approximately 30cm/sec for all depths. Post-dive analysis of the HDTV video allowed detailed measurements of the bubble shrinking rates. The results of the earlier and new experiments lead to the following conclusions: (A) Methane bubbles released below the hydrate stability field showed markedly enhanced lifetimes, attributed to hydrate skin formation. The change in radius with time, dr/dt, varied from -7.5 micrometer/s above the hydrate stability field to about -1 micrometer/s at the deepest release depth. (B) Bubble lifetime within the hydrate stability field increased with distance in P-T space from the hydrate phase boundary. (C) Before hydrate skin nucleation, dr/dt for CH4 bubbles was comparable to dr/dt above the hydrate stability field. Although variable, the onset time for the hydrate skin effect to occur generally decreased with distance from the hydrate phase boundary (super-pressurization and super-cooling with respect to hydrate formation). (D) Even before the onset of the hydrate skin effect, a slight decrease of dr/dt with increasing depth was observed.

Jan 1, 2005

By D. Cronan

Both the S.W. Pacific and Caribbean island arcs are host to submarine hydrothermal mineral deposits, the former more so than the latter. In the S.W. Pacific, the whole gamut of such deposits occurs on the sea floor, sulphides, silicates, Fe and Mn oxides, whereas during the limited studies to date in the Caribbean only hydrothermal Mn oxides have been found to occur on the sea floor there in any abundance. Comparisons between the respective Mn oxides are thus the most fruitful at the present limited stage of our knowledge of Caribbean submarine hydrothermalism. Southwest Pacific hydrothermal ferromanganese oxides and their possible relationships to underlying sulphide mineralisation or bedrock anomalies (the geochemical window concept) has been a fruitful field of research in recent years. Certain element enrichments in crusts may be indicative of underlying mineralisation (Rogers et al. 2001). However, more recent studies on buried hydrothermal crusts in the S.W. Pacific (Cronan et al. 2002) have shown there to have been postdepositional diagenetic uptake of elements in them, and thus these elements cannot be used with any confidence in geochemical exploration for buried sulphide deposits unless sediment involvement can be eliminated.

Jan 1, 2002

By S. Jeffress Williams

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), over the past three decades, has carried out a spectrum of geologic surveys and research in marine areas of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around the U.S. and its territories as well as in the Great Lakes region. Regional and topical studies have been undertaken throughout the range of marine environments: estuarine, tidal wetlands, coastal and nearshore, shelf, slope, and the deep ocean basins. The Survey's coastal and marine research programs consist of four elements shown in Table 1. The first includes studies using interpretations of bathymetry, seismic-reflection and sidescan sonar data, and analyses of sediment grab samples and cores to develop an understanding of the geologic framework. Information on the geologic setting, including the subbottom structure and stratigraphic relationships, and the geologic history and evolution of the areas surveyed are important parts of the program objectives.

Jan 1, 1992

By Cameron Rees

The University of New South Wales Mining Research Centre (UMRC) has a longstanding research reputation in mining research, with particular expertise in mining systems, mining geomechanics and excavation engineering. The UMRC is now focusing this expertise on the potential of mining Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS). The UMRC has initiated a three-year research project that will identify and examine the requirements to effectively and efficiently mine SMS deposits. The major aims of this project are: ? To develop an understanding of the geomechanical characteristics and local physical environmental conditions associated with a ?typical? SMS deposit. ? To develop and evaluate a range of both conventional and innovative excavation processes for mining SMS deposits, and define the engineering parameters required for each extraction option, and ? To identify the materials handling and lifting requirements of the ?mined? SMS material, and the possible integration of the lifting system with the excavation processes considered.

Jan 1, 2002

By Lénaick Menot, Anne-Sophie Alix, Charline Guérin, Sébastien Ybert, Ewan Pelleter, Florian Besson

Ifremer, on behalf of the French government, holds an Exploration Contract with the ISA for polymetallic nodules in the CCFZ. As part of its exploration activities, the NODULE (2015) cruise was conducted to acquire a 50 m resolution bathymetric coverage of the eastern sectors of the Contract. In 2017, Ifremer initiated an update of the Contract’s mineral resource estimate. Metal grades and nodule abundance were modelled using ordinary kriging. The inferred mineral resource is 436 Mt (wet) of polymetallic nodules at an average abundance of 10.7 kg/m² with a cut-off grade of 7 kg/m². Based on the geological data, seamounts, sedimentary basins and steep slopes contain no nodules. Technical studies of most of the contractors have determined that nodule collectors could not maneuver on slopes above 5 to 10°. Thus, Ifremer has selected a quite conservative slope threshold of 7 % (about 4°) and a backscatter threshold of -29.5 dB to delineate nodule-free areas. This has a significant impact on the resource estimate, as about 54 % of the eastern Contract areas are excluded. Near-seafloor high-resolution mapping and photographic transects, associated with finer-spaced box-core sampling could constitute a next step to better constrain the mineable areas and to get a higher level of confidence in the resource estimation.

Jan 1, 2018

By Sven Petersen

In April 2010 three REMUS6000 series autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) have been used to simultaneously map large areas near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (3°N) axis in water depths ranging from 1,000m to 4,000m. One vehicle was provided by the Leibniz-Institute for Marine Science, IFM-GEOMAR (Kiel, Germany) the other two were provided by the Waitt Institute for Discovery (La Jolla, USA) and managed by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (USA). The REMUS6000 vehicles, manufactured by Hydroid Inc. (USA), are "cigar-shaped" vehicles (4m long and weighing approx. 900kg) and consist of a tapered forward section, a cylindrical midsection and a tapered tail section. An internal titanium strongback, which extends through much of the vehicle length, provides the structural integrity and acts as a mounting platform for syntactic foam, equipment housings, various sensors and release mechanisms. The AUVs can be used in various payload configurations such as multibeam bathymetry, electronic still camera, or subbottom profiler. For these missions the electronic still camera configurations was installed. An EDGETECH 2200M dual frequency (120/410 kHz) side scan sonar was used to map the seafloor, but other frequencies are readily available for more options in resolution and range. The 120 kHz side scan transmitter was used for most missions in order to map large areas (increased range) and to be able to fly at higher altitudes (between 70m and 90m) above the rough seabed encountered in this area. The maximum slant range was between 600m and 700m on both sides resulting in a swath width of up to 1.2 km. Line spacing ranged from nearly 1,000m in flat areas down to 400m in steep terrain. Side-scan mosaics were generated with a 1m resolution. Selected areas were targeted by the higher resolution 410 kHz transmitter as well as by bottom photographs flying as low as a few meters above the seabed. The vehicles navigated autonomously using a combination of inertial navigation (Kearfott T-24 or T-16 INS) and long baseline acoustic navigation by computing their range to two moored acoustic transponders. Working efficiently in this rough topography at speeds above 3 knots was only possible due to the obstacle avoidance capabilities of these AUVs.

Jan 1, 2011

By J. R. Woolsey

In late 1988, the Committee for Coordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in South Pacific Offshore Areas (CCOP/SOPAC), Suva, Fiji, consulted the Continental Shelf Division of the Marine Minerals Technology Center regarding low-tech, low-cost, reconnaissance sampling systems for a variety of nearshore needs. Materials of interest to several member island nations included silica and calcareous aggregate for cement manufacture, sand for beach replenishment, heavy minerals, and precious metals. A principal criteria of the system was that it be of low-tech design, and as far as possible, suitable for construction on the islands from available materials. It should also be operable with SOPAC personnel on island vessels of opportunity. The system selected to satisfy these requirements was a convertible drill of basic airlift design, capable of operating with easy modification as either a vibralift or airlift, depending on the desired application. The basic system included a drill pipe constructed of heavy duty 76 mm (3") black iron pipe, divided into three 3 meter sections (for ease of transport), fitted with an air intake manifold and bit at the lower end. A 25 mm (1") galvanized pipe assembled in three similar sections and clamped to the drill pipe served as a water jet to assist in cutting. Air was supplied to the manifold by means of a 12 mm (1/2") pipe also clamped along the length of the drill pipe. Suitable hoses supplied water and air to the upper ends of the respective pipes by means

Jan 1, 1989

By Grigori Abramov

As we enter into the 21st Century, miners are looking more attentively at new mining technologies allowing decrease environment damage along with operational cost. This technic would allow developing of poor and difficult mineral deposits, including the World Ocean offshore zone. Borehole Mining is an underground/underwater remote method of mining carried out from floating platforms or vessels. Definition of Borehole Mining (BHM), working schematic, main technical data and its advantages are given. The method is currently in use in mining of different type of raw materials, such as: uranium, iron ore, quartz sand, coal, polymetallic ores, phosphate, gold, diamonds, rare earths, amber and more. It is also in use in oil and gas stimulation, salt domes storages building and environmental problems solution. Recently recorded data of Borehole Mining productivity (80-100 t/hour/hole) and a depth of mining (over 1 km) has been achieved in a last couple years. Remoteness of method not only secures complete safety of operations but also allows wide sector of underwater applications. The World leaders in Borehole Mining are Russia and the United States. Based on previous experience the Universal Tool for Seabed Borehole Mining has been developed for wide sector of usage: from exploration and mining - through oil & gas stimulation to souterrain storages construction and lake's bottom cleaning.

Jan 1, 2000