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By Raymond A. Binns

Exploration for undersea polymetallic sulfide mineral resources with high economic potential would be more effective given an ability to predict sites with particularly high gold contents (averaging say > 10 ppm Au). Herzig et al (1993) addressed this issue shortly after recognition that deposits in the back-arc Lau Basin (average 3.8 ppm Au) were enriched in gold relative to mid-ocean ridge sites (average 1.2 ppm Au). Small but significant numbers of hydrothermal sites with massive sulfide deposits averaging >10 ppm Au have since been discovered. The principal genetic factors underlying gold enrichment include depositional processes at and below the seabed, and the source of gold. It is timely to consider whether resolution of their relative importance can be translated into practical criteria for exploration strategies focused on especially gold-rich deposits. Comparing the ?grade? of seafloor deposits using analyses cited in research papers is fraught with difficulty, but there is no alternative at present to assuming that such averages provide an initial tenor guide. On this basis, four known polymetallic hydrothermal sites from convergent plate margins fit the exceptional-gold category with >10 ppm ?average? Au, while one from a divergent margin comes close: Sunrise (Myojin Knolls; 20 ppm ?average? Au) and Suiyo Seamount (28 ppm Au) in the Izu-Bonin Arc are frontal arc volcanoes dominated by rhyolite and dacite respectively, contrasting with more common mafic neighbor edifices (Iizasa et al., 1999). In both cases gold-rich massive sulfides occur in summit calderas with significant development of pumiceous volcaniclastic rocks, at depths around 1300 and 1370 m respectively. In the Eastern Manus Basin, PACMANUS (~1700 m; 14 ppm Au) and Suzette (~1550 m; 22 ppm Au) occur along the crests of volcanic ridges dominated by dacite/rhyodacite and andesite/mafic dacite respectively (Binns, 2004). Caldera structures are lacking. Although the Eastern Manus Basin is tectonically a rifted back-arc, its submarine volcanic edifices (picritic basalt to rhyodacite) have distinctly arc-style geochemical and isotopic affinities, differing from more typical back-arc basin basalts at the spreading axis further west (central Manus Basin). Probably as a consequence of transpression and a marked rupture in the New Britain subduction zone, submarine arc volcanism has here extended into the rifted back-arc region.

Jan 1, 2005

By Jan Magne Markussen

China, India and South Korea are three developing/newly industrialized countries that can show a very positive economic development in latter years. Moreover the three countries also feature amongst the countries with the highest level of activity in deep seabed mining today. India was the first country to achieve Pioneer Investor status in accordance with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. The country has carried out comprehensive exploitation of nodule deposits in the Central Indian Basin. India has an active programme for development of mining technology and internationally, India is probably the leading nation today as far as processing technology is concerned. China for its part has established a central coordination unit for its deep seabed involvement and its exploration and technology development is already well underway. South Korea has applied for Pioneer Investor status and much indicates that it will be allocated its own minesite in the autumn of 1994. The three countries are in mutual contact in the area of the Law of the Sea. Korea contacted both China and India when drawing up its application for pioneer investor status and allocation of minesite. However, no cooperation exists between the three regarding for example technology development, economic analysis or in studies of the environmental consequences. The main purpose of this paper is to focus on why and how the three countries would be well advised to cooperate in the above areas. Economic, technological and organizational aspects all point in that direction.

Jan 1, 1994

By John W. Padan

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea contains major provisions that U.S. negotiators have sought for over two decades. The internationally recognized right to the mineral resources of a broad continental margin is of potentially enormous future importance to the United States. Although water depths reach 10,000 feet in some of the deeper areas of the margin, technology is rapidly making those depths economically accessible. In 1997, production in the Gulf of Mexico will reach a world record water depth of 5400 feet. Of perhaps even greater importance to the oil and gas industry is the broadly acknowledged right for tanker transport of oil to take place throughout all parts of the world's oceans.

Jan 1, 1996

By Alexander Malahoff

The study of why and how life survives in the Extreme environment is a major frontier of science today. Extremophiles are organisms that require extreme environment including high temperature, pH, pressure and salt concentration, or low temperature, pH, nutrient concentration, or water availability. Their common habitats are geothermal vents, pools, lakes and craters of active volcanic regions, such as those of New Zealand, Japan, Kamchatka, Yellowstone USA or the hydrothermal vents of the ocean ridges and submarine volcanoes. These settings are accessible by foot, boat, helicopter, or submersibles. This presentation examines the geology, chemistry of geothermal sites of New Zealand, including the active volcano, White Island, Yellowstone, the submarine volcano Loihi in Hawaii, and sections of the mid-ocean ridges. Designing process and construction of Extremophilic sampling and bioreactor systems used in the study of Extremophiles will be discussed. The driving force behind the research of extremophiles is not only the fundamental science, but also biotechnological potential associated with these microorganisms and their cellular products. The University of Hawaii?s Marine Bioproducts and Engineering Center (MarBEC) is laying the foundations for such new industries.

Jan 1, 2001

By Tetsuo Yamazaki

The Kuroko-type seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) in the western Pacific have received much attention as sources for economic recovery of gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb). Since the end of the 1980s, the Kuroko-type SMS have been found in the back-arc basins and on oceanic island-arc areas. In Okinawa Trough (Halbach et al., 1989) and on the Izu-Ogasawara Arc (Iizasa et al., 1999) are the typical representatives in the Japan’s EEZ. They yield a higher concentration in Au and Ag than the SMS found in ocean ridge areas (Rona, 1985). Similar formation processes with the Kuroko ore deposits on-land in Japan have been expected and outlined by many researchers (Sillitoe, 1982; Scott, 1985). The higher Au and Ag contents have increased the chances for profitable mining operation, which is under consideration by a private company (Malnic, 2001). Information about the resource potential of the targeted Kuroko-type SMS deposit, such as the amount of SMS ore body, the inside structure, the mean metal yields, and the geographical details are necessary for a technical and economic validation analysis for the development. The Sunrise Deposit of Myojin Knoll on Izu-Ogasawara Arc in the Japan’s EEZ is selected as a target for the technical and economic validation analysis. The relatively higher amount of information on its resource potential is the reason why the deposit is selected.

Sep 24, 2006

By Charles L. Morgan

"In 2012 the International Seabed Authority (ISA) established nine “Areas of Particular Environmental Interest” (APEIs) for consideration as future Marine Protected Areas to help preserve the biodiversity of life on the seabed within the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) between Baja California, Mexico, and the Hawaiian Islands. The CCZ is believed to have a high potential for future seabed mining operations. Areas under active exploration contracts in the CCZ, plus the areas currently reserved by the ISA for exploration by developing nations, comprise about 1.9 million km2 of seabed area. The currently designated APEIs consist of more than 1.4 million km2 of seabed. Each APEI includes a central primary conservation area of 200 X 200 km, surrounded by 100-km buffer areas on all sides. The 100-km buffers are intended as a very conservative spacing between the primary conservation area and potential mining activities in adjacent seabed. The selection of these nine 400 X 400 km APEIs, has been criticized as possibly not including sufficient representative habitat similar enough to the potential mining areas (identified currently as the exploration contract and reserved areas administered by the ISA within the region) to ensure protection of the biodiversity that might be impacted by mining.An area to the east of the existing exploration contracts and reserved areas is known to have substantial mineral deposits; it is very similar to the adjacent exploration contract areas in its geology, environmental setting, polymetallic nodule abundance and nodule metal content. Because it is located in the northeastern extreme of the CCZ, this area is also likely to have relatively high densities of benthic life, compared with benthic communities further westward within the CCZ. Many options for the designation of this APEI are possible, but the area designation must accommodate the boundaries of the Exclusive Economic Zones of Mexico and France.This paper discusses why the selected region in the eastern extreme of the CCZ is a good candidate for designation as a new APEI.Keywords: polymetallic nodules, Marine Protected Areas, Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Areas of Particular Environmental Interest"

Jan 1, 2017

By Tatiana ?. Sedysheva, Vladimir V. Ivanov, Michail E. Melnikov, Irina A. Pulyaeva

"INTRODUCTIONHydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts are ubiquitous in the ocean basins and play an important role in marine mineral-deposit research because of their widespread occurrence and high concentrations of valuable and rare metals. Directed research, which started in the last quarter of the 20th century, has provided significant results, with substantial amounts of data produced on Fe-Mn crusts structure, composition, and distribution in the global ocean [3, 4 - 8]. Now, commercial interests gain more and more attention. Mining systems are being developed which involve fragmentation of the crusts and their separation from the substrate. The effectiveness of such activities greatly depends on physico-mechanical characteristics of the crusts and rocks on which they form. This determines the importance of the engineering geological study of the objects.This article comprises the results of the engineering geological studies of the crusts samples (72 samples) and their underlying rock substrates (75 samples), which were carried out during the research cruises 6-06, 6-07, 6-08, 6-13 (2006-2013) on the Magellan Seamounts guyots in the Western part of the Pacific Ocean by the specialists of the State Scientific Centre Yuzhmorgeologia [10 - 13, 19, 20]. The authors of the article directly participated in the studies mentioned above.MethodsEngineering geological studies were carried out on board of the research vessel Gelendzhik and in the laboratories of NPA «Sevmorgeologiya». The studies involved the determination of the following parameters:"

Jan 1, 2017

By Tetsuo Yamazaki

Metal market prices rose drastically in 2006, and most broke historical records as shown in Figs. 1-4. This increase has been basically driven by economic growth in Asian countries, especially China. The growth trend is expected to continue for several years. Then, India will follow the same growth trend. Their metal demands keep the price levels high for 20 years or more. One more additional important factor on the metal market prices is hedge funds come into the market. Japan imports all metals for domestic use from overseas. The amounts imported were 1.27 million tons in copper, 0.32 million tons in lead, 0.59 million tons in zinc, 0.20 million tons in nickel, and 1.18 million tons in manganese, respectively in 2006 (Source: http://www.jogmec.go.jp/j_resourse/index.html#03). Though mainly we import the concentrates and our domestic customer smelters take the part of metallurgical leaching, the payment necessary for purchasing the concentrates is estimated about US$ 10 billions in 2006. The payments in 2005 and in 2003 were about a half and a quarter of the 2006, respectively. Japan must have effective counter measures to reduce the future payments.

Sep 24, 2006

By Jan Magne Markussen

The aim of the paper is to analyze the viability of commercial exploitation of polymetallic nodules, the time aspect for exploitation and the probable organization of commercial projects. METHOD My methodological point of departure is to view the various factors in context, and to differentiate between the various groups of actors. This involves taking as my starting point the interaction that exists between economics, technology, politics, law, the environment, and even psychology and ideology, and acknowledge that the various actors may well have differing motives for their engagement.

Jan 1, 1992

By S. Hölz, M. Jegen, K. Reeck, A. Haroon

Past investigations of seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) focused on actively forming sites. New technologies are needed to explore for SMS deposits which have finished their active phase and are possibly covered by sediments or lava. For this purpose the new marine transient electromagnetic (TEM) induction system MARTEMIS was developed by GEOMAR. The system was used for investigations in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Palinuro Seamount) and at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (TAG area) and proved to be suitable for operations at shallow (~600m) and great water depths (~3600m) in steep and difficult terrain. Calibration measurements in the water column demonstrate that it is possible to acquire high quality data, which is fit to be evaluated in terms of inversions. However, these calibration measurements also demonstrated that great care has to be taken in the design of such an inductive coil system, because relatively small metal structures attached to the system may lead to significant static distortions in the measured transients. The interpretation of TEM data acquired at the Palinuro Seamount show a conductive layer in the vicinity of a previously drilled, buried SMS occurrence and serve as proof of principle of the system. Results also indicate that the conductive SMS unit is indeed a confined layer with limited thickness between 3 – 5m, which was not known from previous drilling. In a similar manner, results also hint at an unknown mineralization at depth in a second area of the Palinuro Seamount. Investigations by TEM measurements were accompanied by measurements of the ambient electric field (→ self-potential) and seafloor temperatures with a heatflow probe as well as direct sampling with a gravity corer. The areal coverage of measurements and sampling allow for a greatly enhanced view of the structure.

Jan 1, 2018

By Robert M. Owen

The rare earth elements (REE1s; atomic number 57 -71) exhibit a coherent chemistry, are widespread in nature, and tend to occur in characteristic concentrations in different geochemical phases. Because of their predictable chemistry, the REE's-are highly useful as indicators or tracers of geochemical processes, and are often used as such in investigations of the genesis of terrestrial ore deposits. However, analogous applications of the REE's to the study of marine mineral deposits have been constrained by our limited understanding of the marine geochemical cycle of these elements. For example, a continuing area of uncertainty in this regard involves the so-called "REE Mass Balance Problem." This problem refers to the fact that detailed geochemical mass balance calculations typically predict a significant imbalance for the REE's; i.e., the calculations predict that REE removal rates from seawater are 11-18 times greater than their input rates. Yet all other chemical considerations indicate that the REE budget should be roughly in balance. Recent studies at The University of Michigan suggest the solution to this problem lies in understanding the the role of seafloor hydrothermal activity in the marine budget of the REE's. Geochemical analyses of hydrothermal sediments from two Pacific sites (East pacific Rise at 19°s and the Southern Juan de Fuca Ridge at 45°N) clearly show that the REE component of hydrothermal sediments is primarily acquired via scavenging from seawater. Iron oxyhydroxides, which form as precipitates when hydrothermal solutions are debouched onto the seafloor, are the active scavenging agent. Although the REE content of hydrothermal sediments generally increases with increasing distance from the rise crest, this increase is especially pronounced for sediments deposited below the lysocline,

Jan 1, 1989

By David Heydon

NAUTILUS MINERALS is a leader in the commercial exploration for and evaluation of seafloor massive sulfide (?SMS?) deposits. Nautilus has exploration licences covering 15,000 sq km of seafloor in Papua New Guinea and is evaluating other areas in the Western Pacific. The Nautilus Western Pacific Gold-Copper project is an interesting case study of the interaction of the disciplines of Science, Engineering and Environmental Science to solve and attend to the challenges of a project without precedence. The Science books of geology and marine biology with respect to seafloor massive sulfides are still being written or at best are thin volumes with recognition still we know very little at this time. Science?s early discoveries and study of these mineral processes on the seafloor provided invaluable data from which to develop an exploration strategy and the genesis of Nautilus itself. The Engineering required for development of such deposits is a combination of yet to be tested ?theory and engineering principles? and adaptation of best practice from other fields such as oil/gas and telecommunication cable laying. The Environmental guidelines for exploring these deposits, let alone mining them, is at the moment still being debated by a panel of experts chosen by the International Seabed Authority.

Jan 1, 2005

By Glen Smith

Nautilus Minerals is the world leader in exploration and development of deep ocean seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) resources. The company is currently focused on generating its resource pipeline in the Western Pacific and its first development project for recovery of high-grade copper, gold and silver mineralisation from its Solwara 1 site in the Bismarck Sea, Papua New Guinea. The Solwara 1 site is located at a water depth of 1,600 ? 1,800 meters. Over 150 SMS seafloor surface samples have been collected from chimney structures during dives made by remote operated vehicles (ROVs). In order to obtain an understanding of the sub-surface mineralisation, Nautilus carried out 4 drilling programs between 2006 and 2010 which allowed the calculation of a Canadian NI43-101 compliant resource estimate. The initial 2006 campaign was based on conventional offshore surface driven drill equipment. In conjunction with the subsea remote technology industry, Nautilus subsequently developed an ROV operated seafloor drill system with improved drill core recovery and efficiency. This technology was developed further with a 2010 - 2011 drill program to increase the available geological knowledge at Solwara 1 and adjacent prospects. his paper will provide an overview of Nautilus? SMS drilling requirements and recap the evolution of drilling technology and operations undertaken at Solwara 1 from 2006 to 2011. The paper will also discuss the potential of further developments in drilling techniques and equipment to increase or improve drilling depth, efficiency and data quality.

Jan 1, 2011

By Ning Yang, Sup Hong

INTRODUCTION Metal components contained in deep-seabed mineral resources are being highlighted as “energy metals”, which are widely utilized in the entire fields of energy: harvesting and generation, storage and transportation, and saving. Those are mostly trace and rare metals, and rare earth elements as well: manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, tellurium, selenium, platinum, etc. Toward low carbon society, for global sustainability, the role of metals and minerals is growing up in industries of energy and transportation [1]. In this context, the production and supply of energy metals from deep seafloor have to be approached also based on sustainable development. In deep-seabed mining activity, the sustainability is focused on potential impacts on ecosystems in benthic area and water column. The environmental impacts in deep-seabed mining are caused basically by intervention in benthic zones and transportation of materials. Those are, in particular, removal of benthic habitats, generation and dispersion of sediment plumes, surface transportation of seawater and sediment, tailing from mining vessel, sound and light noises, and chemical leakage, etc. This paper is aiming at fundamental guidance towards sustainable mining of polymetallic nodules.

Jan 1, 2018

By Isobel Yeo, Florent Szitkar, Sven Petersen, Sebastian Graber, Meike Klischies

Technological advances and the shift towards green energies in the last decades have led to a substantial increase in the demand for metal resources. With rising political tension, and quasi-monopolistic production of some key metals, a secured supply chain cannot be guaranteed [1]. Therefore, the focus of the international research community and mining companies has expanded to the seafloor, looking for additional resources. The seafloor may have the potential to contribute significantly to a secure metal supply in the future. However, we have only investigated a fraction of our oceans in sufficient detail to assess the global resource potential. A detailed exploration of the vast seafloor is currently economically not feasible, due to its extremely time-consuming and costly nature. Seafloor massive sulfides generally form along the active plate boundaries and at active volcanoes in arc settings. However, the resources are not evenly distributed on the seafloor. Large deposits tend to be more common along slow-spreading and ultra-slow- spreading ridges that make up the majority of the global mid-ocean ridge system [2]. Therefore, it is important to establish geological models and exploration criteria in order to narrow down the permissive areas, which are likely to accommodate economically interesting deposits. Based on a detailed study of the TAG hydrothermal field in the central Atlantic Ocean, hosting a large active mound as well as several inactive mounds, we develop exploration methods and criteria to define areas of potential massive sulfide occurrences along slow-spreading sections.

Jan 1, 2018

By Benoît Waquet

In a context of scarce mineral resources, coupled with an increasing global demand in metals due to the exponential growth of newly industrialized countries, the mining industry will inevitably have to deal with tomorrow?s resources: underwater deposits. Three types of offshore deposits are known to date: polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts and hydrothermal sulphides. The latter, regarding the political-economic context, is now considered most likely to be exploited in a near future. Operating a mine critically requires accurate knowledge on geotechnical properties of the ore. A question is thus to be asked: Is there a particular spatial organization of geotechnical properties in a hydrothermal sulfide mound? In the present study, geotechnical properties have been measured for 29 sulfide samples of known origin, completed by 14 measurements on Western Pacific specimens from Yamazaki et al. (1990) and Yamazaki and Park (2003). From these geotechnical data on 43 sulfide samples, we can provide some answers to this question above, crucial for future exploitation of underwater mines.

Jan 1, 2010

By T. E. Sedysheva

The study of Co-rich manganese crusts has reached the level which allows to start prospecting works in the observable future, and furthermore, probably, exploitation of ore deposits. In this connection, among other goals, the necessity to analyze a distribution of ore bed parameters in details is quite urgent. Foremost, these are crust thicknesses in connection with landforms and elements of submarine mountains relief. This report is based on representative sampling made in course of research cruises run by SSC Yuzhmorgeologiya over guyots of the Magellan Seamounts. Crustal covers could overlie seafloor surfaces which are confined to a various landforms and elements of relief under the condition, that they are free of sediments. These are planed parts of a summit surfaces, edges, spurs, rectilinear parts of slopes, intermountain saddles and volcanic edifices. It is known, that crustal thicknesses are different at a various forms of relief [1]. We processed statistically the data around crustal thicknesses, which were sampled by dredging and submersible drilling (Tables 1, 2).

Jan 1, 2010

By NA UMC

Abstract Booklet

Dec 2, 2023

By Manfred Krutein

Ocean mining has a number of problems which are critical to its development: ? Political hurdles on national and international stages ? The worldwide economic situation, with the possibliity of a recession ? Financial difficulties in funding further work ? Technical problems for the development of ocean mining and transport subsystems ? Demands for technology transfer This paper touches the last two points and provides some thoughts for discussion and creative objectification. The many technical problems of ocean mining will be identified and some proposed solutions will be investigated relative to the state-of-the-art technology of ocean mining and nodule transport. An outlook into the future attempts identification of the steps necessary to eventually develop components for workable systems that are not only technically but also economically feasible.

Jan 1, 1978

By Peter M. Herzig

In 1994 and 1998 the German research vessel R/V Sonne undertook detailed mapping and sampling of the largely uncharted offshore areas of the Tabar-Lihir-Tanga-Feni island chain in the New Ireland Basin of Papua New Guinea. The New Ireland Basin occupies a fore-arc position with respect to the formerly active Manus-Kilinailau arc-trench system and hosts a series of Pliocene to Recent alkaline volcanoes which are built on rifted Miocene sedimentary basement. Several of the volcanoes possess high-level porphyry stocks and active geothermal systems, including gold-depositing hot springs and the giant (40 million ounces) Ladolam gold deposit on the island of Lihir. On the southern flank of Lihir island, a group of three volcanic cones were discovered at water depths from 1.000-1.500 m. The volcanoes are located in a narrow zone of recent seismic activity and elevated heat flow (up to 100 mW/m2). The recovered volcanic rocks consist of fresh alkali-olivine basalts, clinopyroxene-rich basalts (ankaramites), porphyritic phlogopite basalts, and trachybasalts. Unusual gold-rich hydrothermal precipitates were recovered from the summit of the 600 m high Conical Seamount located only about 10 km south of Lihir Island. 1200 kg of sampled material systematically collected with a TV-guided grab from the top plateau (150 x 200 m, 1.050 m water depth) are intensely mineralized with pyrite, marcasite, minor sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, tennantite/tetrahedrite, and orpiment/realgar together with traces of anglesite, cerrusite, and amorphous silica in stockwork-like veins. Bulk samples of the vein mineralization consist mainly of clays, silica, and disseminated sulfides, and have an unusual high gold content ranging from 1.2-44.0 ppm Au. In some of these samples, grains of native gold (about 1 micron in diameter) were identified by SEM in pyrite and sphalerite. The gold-rich material also contains high concentrations of silver (up to 1000 ppm) and typical epithermal elements such as As (2.6 wt.%), Sb (0.2 wt.%), and Hg (34 ppm). Similar to epithermal deposits on land, which usually have only low base metal contents, the samples from Conical Seamount contain only minor amounts of Zn (max. 4.5 wt.%), Cu (2.0 wt.%), and Pb (2.0 wt.%). Many of the samples recovered from Conical Seamount are virtually identical to the gold ore at Lihir.

Jan 1, 1998