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By Norma Golumbic

The primary purpose of the Bergius (hydrogenation of coal) and Fischer-Tropsch (hydrogenation of carbon monoxide) processes is the production of synthetic liquid fuels. This objective is of importance in insuring an adequate supply of motor fuels and lubricating oils in the United States. In the urgency of the basic research and process development work on synthetic liquid fuels, the possibilities for the production of synthetic chemicals inherent in these processes have hitherto received little attention in this country. However, the by-products, as well as the primary products, from the Bergius and Fischer-Tropsch processes are rich source materials for organic chemicals. The overhead oil from liquid-phase hydrogenation of coal, for example, contains benzene, toluene, xylene, cyclohexane, methylcyclohexane, aromatic solvents, about 20 percent tar acids (largely phenol, cresols, and xylenols), and 3 percent nitrogen bases. Wax, alcohols, and acids are by--products of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. In addition, techniques have been developed which make possible the production of aliphatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and other oxygenated organic compounds. These chemicals are more valuable on a unit basis than gasoline. Because of continued rapid expansion of the plastic, resin, lacquer, and solvent industries, larger amounts of many of these chemicals will be needed in the near future.

Jan 1, 1949

By H. D. Hess

This report presents the results of laboratory mineral evaluations conducted by the federal Bureau of Mines under the joint sponsorship of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and the Bureau a! Ships, U. S. Department of the Navy. The major purpose of this investigation was to examine and evaluate zirconium minerals representing sizeable deposits in an effort to locate com¬mercial sources of high-hafnium ores. Although determination of the hafnium content was the principal objective, each of the zirconium minerals also was analyzed for combined zirconium-hafnium oxide, silica, uranium, thorium, yttrium, and cerium. The general laboratory procedure involved microscopic examination of the test samples, concentration of the hafnium-bearing zirconium mineral by standard laboratory techniques, and analysis of the derived concentrate by quantitative microscopic, chemical, and X-ray spectrographic methods. Of the several hundred samples tested under this program, 147 are discussed in this report, including 94 from domestic occurrences and 53 from widespread foreign sources.

Jan 1, 1962

By Warren D. Longwill

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Jan 1, 1981

By William O. Vanderburg

This report 3/gives the results of a reconnaissance of the mining districts in Lander County, Nev., made from March 29 to April 20 and from May 9 to May 21, 1938, during which virtually all of the mining districts n the county were visited. No attempt has been made to include in this report all the mines and prospects in the various mining districts, and it should be stated that whether or not a property is mentioned herein has no. bearing on its merits. The report rovers the situation of the various districts, types of ore deposits, ownership and description of mines and prospects, information on past and current activity, and other information of economic interest likely to be useful to those interested in the development of our mineral resources. The names of the various districts mentioned are those generally used when they were organized for purposes of record and regulation. When originally organized, the districts embraced large areas with no well-defined boundaries, so that the names have little geographical significance.

Jan 1, 1939

By W. C. Holliman

This report is one of a series of reports on the characteristics of commercial aviation gasolines, It presents compilations of inspection test data on their products furnished by 16 manufacturers of commercial grades of aviation and special date obtained in Bureau of Mines laboratories on 66 samples of these gasolines, Data are presented for 19 samples of grade SO, 17 of grade 91/98, 22 of grade 100/130, and 8 of grade 115/145 aviation fuels. These gasolines are designated July 1948 production, although some of the samples may have been produced a month earlier or later.

Jan 1, 1948

By L. M. Adams

Experiments in reclaiming acidic surface-mined coal lands with raw fly ash from bituminous-coal-fired powerplants were conducted by the Bureau of Mines at two sites in northern West Virginia. Plots at both sites were treated with varying tonnages of fly ash from three area powerplants and were planted with a variety of grasses, legumes, trees, and shrubs. Eight grasses and seven legumes were investigated. Greatest promise for growth under harsh soil conditions was shown by Kentucky 31 fescue, rye and red top grasses, and birdsfoot trefoil, a legume. Survival of trees and shrubs was negligible. Addition of fly ash to the spoil increased the pH to a range tolerable to some types of plant growth, improved the texture of the soil, and increased the available water of the resulting mixture.

Jan 1, 1971

By O. C. Blade

The term "Ichtnyol" is a name applied loosely to certain preparations used in pharmacy. These preparations do not occur as such in nature but are manufactured by various chemical processes. Ichthyol is the name trademarked for a product manyfactured by the Irhthyel-Gescllschaft (Cordes Hermanni & Co.) of Hamburg, Germany, and marketed in thin, country by Merck & Co., Inc., (5, 86, 87)3/. Although used in the literature rather loosely, the correctly applied word refers to the product obtained by sulphonating and then neutralizing with ammonia a distillate from the oil retorted from a certain high-sulphur bituminous shale found near the village of Seefeld in the Austrian Tyrol. Due to the fact that fossils of fish and marine animals occur in the limestone associated with the bituminous shale, these deposits have long been known as, the "lchthyolite schistc of Seefeld" ( 55) . The Greek word "ichthys"" for fish and the Latin word "oleum" for oil are the words from which the term is derived. The crude, tarry shale oil, whose distillate is the raw material for the sulphonation process, has been referred to since the Middle Ages as "Dürsten" or "Tirschen" oil, and the term "ichthyel oil" has been used occasionally in the literature to designate the retorted crude oil (92, 93, 106, 117). The first application of the name "Ichthyol" to a particular product is credited to Schröter (35, 129). Various names for products manufactured by sulphonating bituminous distillates have been coined, and in some of these names the root from the word ichthys has been retained. Some of these names can be found in New and Nonofficial Remedies under the heading, Sulphoichthyolate Preparation, and Substitutes (5).

Jan 1, 1938

By R. F. Zaffarano

Reservoir oil in the Greater Aneth area, Utah, part of the Paradox basin, was studied to detect variation in oil characteristics within the reservoir and to determine its relation to age of accumulation and fluid equilibrium. At least three subsurface oil samples were obtained from each of the four largest of five field divisions comprising a producing area of 45,000 acres. Height of the oil column in the Pennsylvanian Desert Creek zone is about 230 ft. In general, the oil characteristics were found to be uniform across the area, and averages were developed for use in engineering applications. Average saturation pressure was 1,780 psia; the oil was undersaturated at the initial reservoir pressure, 2,200 psia. Variation in saturation pressure shows a lack of complete fluid equilibrium and continuing diffusion of solution gas from the main body of the reservoir to two extensions linked by narrow arms. By assuming early accumulation, the time involved in this diffusion process was calculated to be about the same as the age of the reservoir formation. Cause of the concentration of gas in the main body is attributed to differential entrapment during accumulation of oil and gas from an exterior source.

Jan 1, 1963

By Horace C. Porter, F. K. OVITZ

The various fuel investigations that were being carried on by the technologic branch of the United States Geological Survey were transferred by law on July 1, 1910, to a new federal bureau, the Bureau of Mines, that was authorized to continue the investigations and make public reports of the results. In consequence of this transfer, the following report is published as a bulletin of the new bureau. The United States Geological Survey had been engaged in analyzing and testing coals, lignites, and other mineral fuel substances under authority given by act of Congress. This work, now centered at the experiment station at Pittsburg, Pa., had its beginning in the operations of the coal-testing plant erected at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, Mo., in 1904. The results obtained at that plant showed that the work of determining the fuel value of the coals and lignites in the United States with a view to increasing efficiency in their utilization would be incomplete if it did not include systematic physical and chemical researches into the processes of combustion. Hence in its later investigations the Survey carried on such re- searches, concentrating attention on those lines of inquiry which promised results of greatest economic importance. This bulletin is a report on an investigation of the volatile matter in several typical coals-its composition and amount at different tem- peratures of volatilization. As the investigation is still in progress and will doubtless include other coals than those already examined, the bulletin may be considered a preliminary report, stating the prob- lems studied, the methods used, and the results thus far obtained.

Jan 1, 1910

By H. Kim, R. W. Plummer, T. J. Stobbe, W. G. Jones

"Exposure to airborne dust in coal mines has caused respiratory disease in coal miners. The causal agent in these diseases remains unknown, although the minerals found in and around the coal seam have been implicated. Toxicological studies designed to establish the effect of different mineral combinations and concentrations are lacking because the mineral content of coal mine dust has not been defined. This paper reports the initial results of a study done to characterize the mineral content of the coal mine dust found in a mine in the Upper Freepott seam in Northern West Virginia. Coal mine dust samples were collected using 4- stage cassette impactors at nine locations in the mine. The samples were analyzed by an x-ray microdiffraction film technique supplemented by energy dispersive scanning electron microscopy. Primary size modes of about 17 to 20 micrometers from the samples collected at the haulageway and the returnside of the continuous miner were found. From the returnside of the roof bolter samples, a primary size mode of 12to15 micrometers was measured. The minerals found in high percentages were illite, kaolinite, quartz, and calcite. The distribution of minerals in inter· and intra- location samples showed wide variations. Trends in these variations are presented. Stobbe, T. J.; Plummer, R. W.; Kim, H.; Jones. W.: Characterization of coal mine dust. Appl. Ind. Hyg. 2:95· 100; 1986. IntroductionDisease-associated dusts in coal mine environments continue to afflict miners in today's modern mines. The relationship between exposure to coal mine dust and the development of various respiratory diseases has been well recognized; however, the reasons for variation in occurrence of these diseases among miners in different geographic areas,(1) rank of coal seams,(2-3) and jobs (4) remain uncertain. Several papers have reported on the causal agent in the development of these diseases. Davis (5) found that the percentage of the non-coal minerals present in the lungs of deceased miners increased as the level oi pneumoconiosis became more severe. Reisner (6) reported that cell damage caused by coal mine dust increases with the mineral and quartz content of the dust and with the geo· logical age and rank of the coals. Two studies, investigating the in vitro effects of mineral dusts. reported by Seemayer and Manojlovic (7) also obtained positive correlation between cytotoxicity and the mineral content of coal mine dust. Gormly (8) postulated that destruction of macrophages by certain mineral dusts is the first step in the development of pneumoconiosis. In 1980, Adamis and Timar (9) reported that quartz. sandstone, slate. respirable colliery dust. bentonite, illite, and some kaolins had cytotoxic effects on rat peritoneal macrophages""in vitro."" Walton,(10) however, reported that the presence of high clay, illite, and kaolin mineral exposures reversed the hazards associated with increasing quartz exposures. This finding was supported by Le Bouffant and coworkers.(11) They reported that illite present in coal mine dust strongly inhibited the pathogenic effects of quartz while kaolin had a weaker inhibitory effect."

Mar 1, 1989

By T. F. Anstett

The Bureau of Mines evaluated the potential availability of chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite asbestos from 42 properties in market economy countries. This resulted in the development of tonnage-cost relationships indicating the quantity of grades 3 through 7 asbestos at various average total costs of production at 0% and 15% rates of return on invested capital. The availability of grades 2 and 8 was also evaluated, but since each is produced at only one property, no analytical results were given. Total demonstrated recoverable chrysotile fiber potentially available of grades 3 through 7 from the 42 properties evaluated follow: 1.59 million t, 21.00 million t, 16.74 million t, 15.54 million t, and 19.27 million t, respectively. The total amount of crocidolite is 1.69 million t. Owing to the good potential for discovery and development of new deposits, long- term availability of fiber of all three types is not in jeopardy. However, many of the crocidolite properties evaluated in the northern Cape crocidolite field of South Africa have relatively small demonstrated resources, and new deposits will have to be exploited by the late 1990's to sustain projected levels of production.

Jan 1, 1985

By M. M. Barr

Rapid expansion of the titanium-metal industry focused attention upon ilmenite as a possible substitute for the more expensive and less abundant rutile in producing titanium tetrachloride. Most of the rutile available for this use is imported. Preliminary studies were undertaken to determine the chlorination characteristics of high-titanium slags produced by electric-arc furnace smelting of alluvial Idaho ilmenite at the Federal Bureau of Mines Northwest Electrodevelopment Experiment Station, Albany, Oreg. Low silicon, calcium, and aluminum contents of the slags enhanced their potential value for chlorination.

Jan 1, 1958

By L. Garner McDonald

The U.S. Bureau of Mines, under contract to the U.S. Department of Energy, investigated the erosive-wear properties of seven commercial alloys with potential applications as valves for coal-conversion plants. A dry particle, jet-erosion apparatus was used to determine the wear of seven materials: 316 and 440-C stainless steels, K-68, K-701, and K-801 cemented tungsten carbides, HC-250 white cast iron, and Haynes 6B. The alumina abrasive entrained in the nitrogen gas jet had particle sizes of 27 or 50 µm, the abrasive velocities were 55 to 170 m/s, and the particle impingement angles were 15° to 90°. The maximum specific wear for ductile materials was found to occur at impingement angles of 15° to 30°, and the minimum specific wear occurred at 60° to 90°. For the brittle materials, maximum specific wear occurred at impingement angles of 50° to 85° and minimum specific wear was at the lowest angles. As the velocity and erosive particle size increased, the specific wear increased. The specific wear was related to the velocity by the power function WocAVn, where n was 1.8 to 3.9 for ductile materials and 1.8 to 3.6 for brittle materials.

Jan 1, 2010

By David Burgess

Natural gas is a general term applied to the gas obtained from oil or gas wells. It is the most widely used of all gaseous fuels. The principal disadvantage in the use of this and other gaseous fuels is the difficulty encountered in the storage and transportation of large quantities in the gas state. Handling in the liquid state is possible, but reduced temperatures are required since methane (table 1) is the principal component of most natural gases that are used as fuels. Actually, liquid storage has been utilized both here and abroad;3 however, the Cleveland disaster4 has pointed out the need for a critical evaluation of the hazards involved in the storage of this cryogenic fuel. Accordingly, a program was undertaken to obtain basic data that could be used to assess these hazards. In this report, the factors to be considered in an evaluation of the fire and explosion hazards associated with any fuel are each discussed briefly. These factors are then used to assist in the design of experiments for the evaluation of the hazards associated with liquefied natural gas (LNG) relative to those associated with other common fuels. Experiments have been conducted on the vaporization of LNG, the mixing of LNG vapors with air, the effect of temperature and nitrogen dilution on the limits of flammability of methane in air, the burning rates of LNG and other fuels, flame radiation, and extinguishment of fires above liquid pools. Based on the results of these experiments, LNG can be stored safely in suitably designed above-ground tanks surrounded by earthen dikes in much the same manner as gasoline.

Jan 1, 1962

By R. P. Vinson

The Bureau of Mines examined the effects of high humidity and water droplets on the GCA Corp. real-time aerosol monitor (RAM--l). which uses a lO4mm cyclone preseparator. Tests were conducted both in a laboratory and in a full-scale model mine entry. The laboratory tests were conducted in a test chamber saturated with moisture and water droplets. Under these extreme conditions. the RAM-I responded by indicating dust concentrations of 1-1/2 to 2 mg/m3? although the air was dust free. Within the first 2 h of each test. water accumulated in the cyclone and affected the cyclone particle separation characteristics. resulting in readings of 3 to 4 mg/m3. In addition. condensation formed inside the RAM-I case and affected the liquid crystal display (LCD). However. the full-scale mine entry tests revealed that the RAM-I can function ac-ceptably in an atmosphere of water vapor and water droplets similar to the most severe conditions found in an underground mine.

Jan 1, 1984

By P. B. Altringer

Searles Lake, CA, contains the largest known domestic tungsten resource. The brines in this near-dry lake bed, located in the Mojave Desert 130 mi northeast of Los Angeles, contain an estimated 135 MMlb of tungsten. However, the low concentration of tungsten (0.080 g/L W03) in the supersaturated brine makes selective tungsten extraction very difficult. Although many brine chemicals are extracted from the lake, tungsten recovery was an elusive goal prior to Bureau of Mines development of an ion-exchange technique. This publication describes the Bureau process. The following subjects are ad-dressed: ? The Searles Lake tungsten resource. ? General problems associated with tungsten recovery. ? Bureau research objectives. ? Synthesis of ion-exchange resins. ? Development of a two-stage ion-exchange tungsten extraction and concentration procedure. ? Product recovery and purification. ? Economic evaluation. Flowsheets for recovering three products (calcium tungstate, sodium tungstate, and tungstic oxide) are presented and evaluated, as well as a summary of the research effort and potential applications.

Jan 1, 1985

By V. A. Nieberlein

An extractive process was developed applicable to submarginal titanium deposits containing valuable minor constituents; such as columbium (niobium) and iron. The process consisted of reducing the mineral concentrate with coke at high temperature to form a carbide-suboxide sinter, chlorination in the 400° -500° C. range, and fractional condensation of the chlorides. The chlorination procedure recovered 97, 83, and 87 percent of the titanium from brookite, rutile, and ilmenite sinters, respectively, while simultaneous columbium recoveries on the same materials were 85, 50, and 87 percent.

Jan 1, 1957

By P. G. Clites

A laboratory furnace was developed by the Federal Bureau of Mines for use in studying the interrelationships among variables associated with skull melting and casting high-temperature metals. Although additional work is necessary to determine the extent to which the information obtained by using this furnace can be extrapolated to larger furnaces of the same type, many casting characteristics of metals and alloys can be determined on equipment of this size. This furnace is a laboratory-size, consumable-electrode, skull-casting furnace equipped with a water-cooled copper ladle. The ladle, which is a tilt-pour or over-the-lip type, has a volume of approximately 30 cubic inches and provides up to 20 cubic inches of molten metal for castings. Castings of various reactive and refractory metals, including zirconium, titanium, hafnium, columbium, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten, have been produced. In addition, castings of iron, chromium, and copper have been made. The simplicity and versatility of the apparatus would make it useful to metallurgical laboratories preparing cast specimens.

Jan 1, 1961

By R. F. Zaffarano

Intergrated energy balances and energy flows were constructed and quantified for State, regional, and national levels from four separate supply and demand commodity balances for coal, dry natural gas, petroleum and natural gas liquids, and utility electricity. These commodity balances were integrated by source and sectors through conversion and aggregation of their components to energy equivalents expressed in British thermal units (Btu). A summarization of the total gross energy components of supply and demand for commercial energy derived from direct fuels, hydropower and nuclear power, based on individual States and regions, is tabulated for 1960 and 1965. Pertinent computerization details and more than 500 individual State and regional printout tables, in both original commodity units and Btu's, are shown. Using these data, energy flows between States and regions were calculated to identify surplus and deficit energy areas. Report emphasis is on the conceptual aspects of integrated energy balances, rather than on the development of missing State energy data.

Jan 1, 1969

By Oliver Bowles

The use of fire as a source of heat was the first step from primitive existence toward modern civilization, and heat has performed functions of inestimable importance throughout the ensuing ages. The first commercial steam engine invented in 1698 demonstrated that heat was an important source of power, and heat has since become the motivating force for railroad trains and steamboats as well as for machines in multitudes of factories. Aside from its function of supplying power, heat is an agent of vast importance in chemical reactions and engineering processes. Because of the high temperature of steam under pressure, losses by radiation from boilers and pipes become excessive unless the radiating surfaces are covered with insulating materials. Insulation is important also for hot-water pipes and many other types of equipment from which heat may radiate. Radiation losses from heated surfaces increase rapidly

Jan 1, 1943