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By Edward Keller

The work covered by this report was undertaken at the request of Dr. J. A. Holmes, late Director of the Bureau of Mines, to whom the writer had been recommended by C. W. Goodale and E. P. Mathewson, of Butte and Anaconda, Mont. The director's offer was accepted for the honor it conferred and for the useful results that might be promulgated by the work in the technical field covered. The investigation was facilitated by permission to visit various works and sometimes by contributions of important definite information on a given subject. It is therefore with pleasure that acknowledgment of courtesies is made to the following corporations and gentlemen: Anaconda Copper Mining Co., Raritan Copper Works, Baltimore Copper Smelting & Rolling Co., United States Refining Co., American Smelting &, Refining Co., B. B. Thayer, A. C. Clark, A. L. Walker, William H. Peirce, E. A. Cappelen Smith, H. H. Alexander, F. C. Newton, S. Rolle, R. W. Deacon, N. W. Pierce, O. C. Martin, C. N. Sappington, James K. Thomson, W. G. Derby, and the assistants of the writer, K. W. McComas and W. L. Raup. In this report considerable space has been devoted to general and theoretical principles on the ground that under modern conditions the best results in any field of activity can be attained only with the a. id of an adequate knowledge of the best theories underlying the practice. The diffusion of such knowledge in the field of sampling metallic metallurgical materials appears to have been quite insufficient, and it is felt that when the principles involved are once thoroughly comprehended their universal application will be appreciated, so that it will make no difference whether pig iron or gold bullion is offered for test. It may further be noted that a discussion of the theories underlying practical methods is placed under the caption "Practical Sampling," with the idea that no one can be a practical sampler unless he is capable of analyzing his methods. No attempt has been made to advocate any one method, but it is hoped that the analyses of all of the methods in use will show where each may be correctly and safely applied. The fact that it is possible to demonstrate the theoretical correctness of several methods indicates the invalidity of the claim that any single one of them is the standard.

Jan 1, 1916

By W. Dan Walker

In recent years the Federal Bureau of Mines tested and approved four new types of self-contained breathing apparatus and a facepiece designed for use with the McCaa 2-hour self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus. The Bureau also developed and perfected a battery-powered lifeline telephone for use in mine rescue and recovery operations. Some of this equipment is described in Bureau of Mines Information Circular 7413.4/ This publication is a revision of information Circular 7413 and presents pertinent information on more recently developed mine rescue equipment. The breathing apparatus described herein are 1/2- and 3/4-hour sell-contained types of much simpler design than the conventional 2-hour self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus ordinarily used by mine rescue crews; however, it is just as important to select rescue crews carefully and to train them properly in the use, care, and limitations of the newer types of apparatus as well as the older, established types, if the newer types are to be used safely. The Bureau of Mines recommends that 1/2- and 3/4-hour self-contained breathing apparatus be used only as auxiliary equipment in mine rescue and recovery work and that the capabilities and limitations of the apparatus should be well understood by those who wear the equipment.

Jan 1, 1957

By R. V. Ramani

The industrial hygiene and safety aspects with internal combustion engines in mining systems is truly interdisciplinary and encompasses many fields such as mine ventilation, exhaust gas and particulate analyses, mine atmospheric environment monitoring, mathematical modeling of generation, dilution and dispersion of pollutants in ventilation systems, and engine testing and approval. This bibliography, therefore, is a compilation of references from interdisciplinary sources pertaining to diesels and related areas. Related areas are defined as those concerned with: (i) mine ventilation system design and operation; (ii) description, measurement, modeling and monitoring of mine atmosphere contaminants, and (iii) tests, standards, selection procedures, and operational practices for internal combustion engines in underground mines. References cited from source materials span the years 1900 to early 1977. Total number of references cited is 511. Subjective criteria governed the definition and selection of references. Therefore, this bibliography is not claimed to be all-inclusive nor does it purport to be an exhaustive search of all sources.

Jan 1, 1977

Low-cost housing, like automobiles, should be appraised in the light not merely of first cost but of upkeep as well. Even more important than the number of miles the family car will go on a gallon of gasoline is the number of days the family home can be kept comfortable on a ton of fuel. A furnace tender who tossed every third shovelful of coal into the ashcan would lose his job promptly, but the effect is the same when homes continue year after year to pour out precious heat through uninsulated roofs and walls, Greater economy in household heating means even more to the national economy than to the individual, especially now that we are preparing for defense. Our fuel resources, although large, should be conserved. If less fuel is used for civilian needs, augmented requirements for defense can be met without unduly increasing the number of men needed at the coal mines and oil ells or adding new producing units that might complicate ultimate readjustment to peacetime conditions when the emergency is past and over-expansion of many industries brings new problems if unnecessary demands for transportation facilities are reduced, public carriers will be able to haul more munitions, and manpower needed for national defense will be released; and by protecting workers from health hazards in their homes additional man-hours of productive effort will be gained. Moreover, reducing the running expenses of houses by proper heat insulation helps home owners to maintain payments on property, and by minimizing foreclosures helps to stabilize the financial structure of the country. In short, here is a situation where the interests of the individual and the Nation are identical and the greatest good for the greatest number is obtained without sacrifice to anyone.

Jan 1, 1941

By J. W. Thompson

ESTATE IN MINERALS. Minerals beneath the surface may be made the subject of separate ownership either by a grant of the minerals by the owner of the land or by a grant of the land excepting the minerals, and thereby an estate in fee simple is created in the minerals, as corporeal things real. Colby, In re, Iowa, 169 Northwestern 443, p. 444. DEEDS EXCHANGING DIFFERENT MINERALS-RIGHTS OF PARTIES. The lands of two adjoining owners were underlaid with cement rock and clay at a depth of about 100 feet from the surface and with coal veins some 600 feet below the surface. By an exchange of deeds one of the land owners conveyed to the other the cement rock and clay with the right to mine and remove the same without entering upon the surface, but the deed contained no covenant not to injure the surface. The other deed conveyed the coal seam and so much of the rock and other minerals just above and below the coal as might be required in connection with the mining and removing of the coal, together with the right to mine and remove the same, and the adja- cent rock, clay, and other minerals, without entering upon or injuring the surface, with one immaterial exception. The deeds do not define the word "surface" and neither expressly nor by implication did they secure to the coal owner the right to subside the overlying cement rock; but the implication is to the contrary, as the deed gives the right to mine and remove coal without entering upon or injuring the surface. The provision that the coal owner should not enter upon or injure the surface amounts to a clause that the coal mine. shall not be worked so as to let down the surface and this does not create any inconsistency with the provision giving the right to mine and carry away the coal.

Jan 1, 1919

By Charles L. Harness

Magnesia (MgO) has a variety of uses, and it has become increasingly important as a war material because of the imperative demand for refractories to line metallurgical furnaces, and because magnesia is used to make the in aircraft and other implements of warfare. Magnesia occurs as an integral part of nearly 60 minerals, but it is extracted commercially from only a .smaller number, of them. The present commercial sources are magnesite, brucite, dolomite, raw sea water, sea water bitterns, and well brines. Magnesia Raw Materials Magnesite magnesium, carbonate MgCO3, theoretically contains 47.8 percent MgO and 52.2 percent CO2. There are two varieties of magnesite, crystalline and cryptocrystalline (dense or amorphous). The latter type, though, not so plentiful as the former, is generally purer. It resembles unglazed write pottery in texture, whereas the crystalline variety is generally dark and granular, though the color may vary. The principal domestic deposits, of crystalline magnesite are near Chewelah, Stevens County, Wash. (which has supplied most of the magnesite mined in the United States), in the Gabbs Valley area of Nevada (near Luning); and in Llano County, Tex. Crypto-crystalline magnesite occurs principally in California. Magnesite occurrences have also been reported in several other States, including New Mexico, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Vermont, and Maryland, but these deposits have not been developed commercially.

Jan 1, 1943

This report describes the activities and publications of the Bureau of Mines Health and Safety Research and Testing Center, Pittsburgh, Pa., for the fiscal years 1960-65. It includes a discussion or work being conducted on roof control, dust explosions, ventilation, health, coal mine fire control, and electrical-mechanical testing, and an abstract of each paper published during the report period.

Jan 1, 1966

By Charles Vaught, Henry J. Kellner, Michael J. Brnich, Henry P. Cole, William J. Wiehagen

In 1985, U.S. Bureau of Mines and University of Kentucky researchers began a series of studies relating to self-contained self-rescuer (SCSR) donning proficiency. During the next 5 years investigators examined a number of factors that have a bearing upon miners' ability to put on and use the apparatus in an emergency: the procedure being taught; availability and utilization of training models; opportunities to practice; hygiene; and on-the-job training. This report presents an overview of that research. It is concluded that companies should adopt a hands-on training protocol that allows them to integrate SCSR donning practice into other workplace routines such as fire drills.

Jan 1, 1993

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) has developed a test procedure to compare the initiating strength of detonators by using adjustable-sensitivity liquid explosives. Various tests of detonator strength are currently used by the industry, but many of them do not quantify the ability of detonators to initiate detonation reactions in an explosive charge. The USBM used mixtures of nitromethane and ethylene diamine, the sensitivity being "fine-tuned" by 2-nitropropane. Military standard J-2, commercial No.6, and commercial No.8 detonators were evaluated using three test configurations: (1) axially immersed in the test explosive, (2) tip just touching surface of the explosive, and (3) immersed transversely in the explosive. Markedly different results were obtained for these three configurations, indicating that the directional effects are important. This explains why different detonator strength tests do not correlate well with each other. Some tests, such as the sand bomb and underwater, measure the total energy out-put, while other tests, such as the plate dent, test measure the energy in the axial direction. The USBM's test data indicate the importance of conducting the experimentation in the manner in which the detonator is actually intended to function.

Jan 1, 2010

By Charles G. Maier

"INTRODUCTION The use of thermodynamic calculations to answer practical problems in metallurgy, especially those that are relatively difficult to test experimentally, is rapidly becoming a conventional method of procedure. Nevertheless, these methods cannot he applied effectively until the fundamental thermodynamic constants used for them have become available either by direct experiment or by recalculation of data already existing in more or less undigested form.In an attempt to collect such data far the compounds of lead and the antimony group the incentive has been to make a preliminary survey that will disclose the gaps or questionable phases of available information and to collect data that may be used to answer certain rather practical problems presented by operating metallurgists.This report comprises three sections; the first gives the basis of selection of the constants which may now be given or estimated, and the later sections discuss the application of the figures obtained to two of the more interesting problems.The reader will discover that many of the quantities involve critical study of a number of more or less discordant observations. Although certain data could be rejected on the basis of thermodynamic comparisons, it must not be overlooked that many of the figures are the results of rational estimates rather than exact experiment. The use of thermodynamic methods to control and partly authenticate such estimates is one of its most valuable characteristics for the practising metallurgist or chemist, who cannot check by direct experiment each property of the materials which he converts to usable form.Nevertheless, while it is definitely possible in certain instances that the final figure selected for the heat or free energy of a process or substance may be in error by as much as a few hundred to a few thousand calories per formula weight, questionable figures are usually revealed by the thermodynamic calculations made. When quantities of such degree of accuracy are, and they often must be, used for estimating an unknown reaction, the result often gives no more than the order of magnitude of the desired quantities. Yet even in these extreme cases the answer is far more reliable and valuable than an unordered guess or a conclusion based on incorrect data."

Dec 1, 1934

By Louis H. Berkelhamer

"INTRODUCTION ""Free silica"" includes all free forms of silicon dioxide, such as quartz, chalcedony, tridymite, cristbbalite, opal, diatomaceous earth, and lechatelierite. The term, has been used rather loosely however, as synonymous with quartz, as quartz is the most abundant form of free silica. ""Combined silica,"" on the other hand, has been reserved to denote silica combined with other elements as silicates.Improvements in methods for the determination of free silica, and quartz in particular, have been the subject of considerable interest during the past decade, owing mainly to the accented and increased knowledge concerning quartz as a causative factor in silicosis. Analysis for quartz, however, is of importance in many other fields, including the determination of quartz in ceramic raw materials, such as feldspar and clay; the evaluation of a beneficiation procedure by the ore dresser, such as in the concentration of iron ore; control studies of a manufactured product, such as silica brick; and routine analysis of rock, mineral, and ore samples by chemists and petrographers."

Jul 1, 1944

By J. Pasini

The Bureau of Mines has investigated novel methods of stimulating petroleum production from reservoirs in the Appalachian Region. An important consideration in applying stimulative production methods is the control and removal of solid precipitates from the boreholes of production wells. Where paraffin-base crude oils are produced, as in the Appalachian Region, the accumulation of paraffin may be particularly troublesome. Paraffin deposition is a major production problem that has confronted the petroleum industry for many years. Although considerable effort has been expended by industry and government, a suitable solution has not been found because of the individuality and complex nature of the deposits. Remedial methods used to prevent or remove paraffin fall generally into four classes: (1) Chemical, (2) physical, (3) operative, and (4) combination. Each class has many subclasses that apply to particular problems in different oil- producing areas. Recently, chemical inhibitors and the sonic pump have assisted operators in preventing and removing paraffin deposits. Because these methods are relatively new, their degree of application has not been completely evaluated.

Jan 1, 1963

By J. K. Whyatt

The Bureau of Mines, under a cooperative agreement with Callahan Mining Corp., measured rock displacement at the 4,7S0-ft level of the 5,100-ft-deep rectangular, timbered Caladay Shaft in northern Idaho. Displacements were measured with multiple-position borehole exten-someters (MPBX) installed 4 ft above the face and timber extensometers (TE) installed with the timber sets. This report presents the displacement data along with preliminary, qualitative observations of rock behavior. The measured displacements showed an instantaneous response to shaft sinking and significant time dependency. The relative magnitudes of displacement measured at the shaft walls were heavily influenced by local geologic structure and distance from the shaft bottom.

Jan 1, 1987

By James L. Fenton

In its unending search for the raw materials that the affluent society of today requires the mining industry has found it necessary to go to great depths, in many cases, to produce these materials. Inherent with this problem is the insufficient technology relating to improving extreme environments that the mine personnel are exposed to. In this dissertation, the sources of heat flow into a mine along with the various effects that this heat has on the mine personnel are investigated. The object of dissertation is to compile all the available published information pertaining to these underground heat and their effects into one paper. This will provide the mining industry with an available easy-to-use to aid in the determination of mine ventilation requirements as the mines are in the phases of original planning or being extended to depth. Areas of significant, deficiencies it knowledge have been disclosed during this overall appraisal. Recommendations on important basic research needs are out lined for future consideration by Federal or industries sponsorship. This thesis should serve as a stimulus lo, future well-organized research efforts in the area of underground heat sources and their control.

Jan 1, 1973

This Kaiser Engineers report on the feasibility of surface mining on the North Slope of Alaska has considered the quantity and quality of the North Slope deposits with attention paid to the economic, technical, and environmental constraints of the mining systems suggested for the three candidate minesites at Kukpowruk River, Elusive Creek, and Kuk River. Site selection, based on coal rank and quality as well as seam thickness and geometry, also considered demonstrated and hypothetical reserves relative to three mining systems (dragline, shovel, dragline and shovel), mining equipment requirements, infrastructure, and transportation relative to the Arctic environment and costed for potential markets. Throughout the report the delicate permafrost environment has received particular consideration. Recommendations based on the technical, economic, and environmental feasibility of mining the coal deposits of Northern Alaska by surface mining techniques have resulted in two conclusions: 1. The coal deposits can be mined with currently available technology; 2. It is uneconomic to mine these coals given current coal resource estimates, costs, and market conditions. A literature survey is included in appendix.

Jan 1, 1977

By E. G. Noble

The effects of hydrogen chloride (HCI) concentration and temperature on the solubility and hydration state of the alkali chlorides LiCI, NaCI, and KCI and the alkaline-earth chlorides, MgCI2, and CaCl2 were investigated by the Bureau of Mines. Saturated aqueous solutions of the chlorides were sparged with HCI gas at temperatures of 20°, 40°, and 60° C. Increased HCI concentration caused decreased salt solubility be-cause of the common ion effect. Aqueous solubilities for the chlorides of Ca, Li, Mg, K, and Na ranged from 42.6, 45.2, 35.2, 25.5, and 26.1 pct, respectively, at 20° C to 56.9, 49.4, 37.6, 31.0, and 27.0 pct, re-spectively, at 60° C. In solutions sparged to HCI saturation, solubili-ties for these chlorides ranged from 22.4, 26.5, 3.0, 1.3, and 0.05 pct, respectively, at 20° C to 53.2, 48.8, 28.3, 2.6, and 0.8 pct, respec-tively, at 60° C. The solubilities of LiCI and CaCl2 in HCI solution were high because HCI solubility is low in these solutions. The chlo-ride salts of Ca, Li, and Mg formed hydrates, which depended on tempera-ture and HCI concentration. Monohydrates for LiCI, tetrahydrates and hexahydrates for MgCI2, and dihydrates, tetrahydrates, and hexahydrates for CaCl2 were obtained.

Jan 1, 1985

By Albert L. Toenges

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Jan 1, 1938

By D. Harrington

Correct ventilation of underground workings whether in coal or in metal mines consists in establishing such control of air currents that the miners may work in safety, with maximum comfort and efficiency, and without impairment of health; also in controlling the air flow so that the mine workings may at ordinary times be kept reasonably free of harmful gases or dusts, and so that in time of emergency, as when a fire or an explosion occurs, there may with minimum delay be maintained as much or as little air flow as is desired throughout the mine in its entirety or in certain parts of the mine. Control of air flow is the essential point of any mine ventilating system, and is obtained only by the installation of mechanically operated fans, and other ventilating devices such as doors; overcasts, regulators, etc. Every mine, large or small, coal or metal, should from the outset be equipped with a fan. Much has been written about natural ventilation, and many claims have been made that in specific mines or parts of mines there is sufficient natural air flow. As a matter of fact, there are actually very few if any mines, coal or metal, where natural ventilation creates atmospheres anything like adequately safe or healthful for underground workers even at ordinary times or under ordinary. conditions; and at the time of a fire or an explosion mines depending upon natural ventilation are practically helpless, and are decidedly dangerous for the unfortunates forced to be in them either at the time of the disaster or afterwards when trying to handle conditions arising from the emergency.

Jan 1, 1929

By William F. Hahn

This project focused effort on three separate areas: demonstration of a low seam longwall illumination system, design of illumination systems for low coal auger miners, and an assessment of machine lighting systems for machinery used to mine low seam coal. Results indicated illumination systems can be purchased by the mine operators of low coal seams. These systems can be supplied with the equipment as a factory integrated system or can be retrofitted to the machine or longwall equipment.

Jan 1, 1982

By R. A. Cattell

Every finding of the year's work, obtained under stress to meet present objectives, contributed to postwar needs, because the very nature and constitution of petroleum and natural gas require that research be conducted along the same general lines whether the results are applied in peace or war. More than 40 reports were submitted to the Petroleum Administration for War and others concerned with (1) evaluation of crude oils to determine their content of aviation-gasoline base stock, (2) evaluation of base stocks for blending with high-octane, synthetically manufactured components, (3) analyses of naphthas to determine their content of various types of hydro-carbons, such as benzene and toluene, and (4) the improvement of quality of marginal base stocks to meet future requirements of aviation gasoline. This upgrading of marginal stocks is being attained by selective distillation and chemical and catalytic removal of sulfur compounds. Asphalts were studied with respect to the characteristics of their various constituents in order to compound them, in the same way that aviation fuels now are being "built" to meet exacting requirements. The work previously initiated to give the industry fundamental data on thermodynamics of hydrocarbons progressed satisfactorily, and the heats of combustion of 10 hydrocarbons in the lubricating oil -range of petroleum were determined. Thermodynamic data requiring highly specialized techniques are so broad in application that their commercial usefulness is not yet fully appreciated.

Jan 1, 1946