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By E. C. Perkins

The purpose of the research described in this report was to develop techniques for using ilmenite from domestic deposits for the production of titanium tetrachloride. The research was done by the Federal Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the General Services Administration under contract DMP-116, Utilization of Domestic Ilmenite. Bench-scale continuous chlorination of an Idaho ilmenite containing 27.9 percent titanium and 35.6 percent iron yielded a crude titanium tetrachloride suitable for purification and for the production of titanium metal and pigment. A summary of the results of 380 hours of operation showed that 82.4 percent of the titanium was chlorinated, with 92.5 percent utilization of chlorine. The construction- of a. quartz tube chlorinator 4-inches in diameter and 24 inches long is described with the necessary details of operation.

Jan 1, 1961

By Sara Jane Boles

The purpose of this Bureau of Mines investigation was primarily to isolate and examine the effect of liquid content upon the apparent porosity and bulk density of compacts pressed from high-purity, fused aluminum oxide, and, secondarily, to study the actual mechanism by which the liquid content affects the bulk density. No attempt was made to approach the theoretical maximum density of the oxide by introducing additives, particle packings, or similar variables; instead this study is an intercomparison of the bulk densities obtained as functions of the water contents of the compacting mixtures. Water content was varied from 7 percent to 25 percent, on a total-weight basis. The data gathered indicated a well-defined optimum water content for obtaining minimum apparent porosity and maximum bulk density, under the conditions of the experiment. During the course of this study, a number of additional variables in the forming process were discovered and are introduced in this report, although a thorough evaluation was found to be beyond the scope of this present investigation.

Jan 1, 1963

By John E. Conley

Of the three chemical elements most vitally essential for plant growth the United States, before World War I, had developed ample domestic supplies of but one-phosphorus. During and shortly after the war period, the fixation of nitrogen was greatly expanded in this country, as in many others, insuring a supply adequate for agriculture as well as for munitions. However, in spite of a search for sources of the third element, potassium, which began years before the war, attained almost frantic intensity between 1914 and 1919, and continued for 10 years thereafter, it was not until 1921 that the American Trona Corporation put its Searles Lake operations into continuous production. This company in 1926 became The American Potash & Chemical Co. but has never supplied much more than 15 percent of the potash consumed in the American market. Likewise, though discovered in 1921 in drill cuttings from oil wells, it was not until 1926 that domestic deposits of potassium salts adequate to render the United States independent of foreign sources of supply were proved to occur in the Permian Basin of Texas and New Mexico.

Jan 1, 1944

Papers presented at a U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) technology transfer seminar describe the causes of violent material failure in U.S. mines, measurement techniques for monitoring events that result in violent failure, and mitigation techniques for controlling failure. Specific factors contributing to violent failure are identified on the basis of geotechnical monitoring in 16 U.S. hard-rock and coal mines and on statistical analyses of 172 coal bump events. New monitoring and analysis techniques developed as tools for assessing violent failure; geotomographic methods that provide new capabilities for the study of material failure and stress changes over large areas; and seismic methods for determining source locations, calculating energy release, and determining source mechanisms are described. Fair correlations have been established among seismic parameters, elastic stresses, face support load, and violent events. USBM studies have identified the advantages using both yielding and stable pillars for coal bump control. A computer program has been developed as an aid for selecting room-and-pillar layouts. The practical aspects of implementing a destressing program is outlined for coal mines, while the importance of mine orientation and timely support installation in controlling buckling-type failure is identified for hard-rock mines.

Jan 1, 1995

By John J. Ginty

The objective of the work reported herein was to evaluate state-of-the-art repeaters used in wireless communications to determine their suitability for use in extending the range of portable and mobile communications in underground mine applications. The scope of the work included wireless repeaters in the frequency range from LF (500 kilohertz) up to the one giga-hertz range. These repeaters included not only single-channel repeaters, that is F1/F1 repeaters for short range simplex party line communications, but in addition, F1/F2 type repeaters currently commercially available in the HF, VHF and UHF bands.

Jan 1, 1975

By BUREAU OF MINES

In 1948 the United States became a net importer of oil. Coupled with an unpre- cedented domestic production of 5,900,000 barrels daily, imports approximating 500,000 barrels made available a total supply of 6,400,000 barrels a day. Thus, by herculean effort, the oil industry was able to meet an extraordinary demand at home and, in addition, to ship abroad almost 400,00 barrels daily of petroleum and products. The country's oil position now differs greatly from that prevailing at the be- ginning of World War II. Then, actual oil production averaged about 4 million bar- rels a day, and productive capacity probably was greater than 5 million barrels a day. As the demand of the military and industrial machine grew with the rising tempo of the drive toward victory, the United States not only met its own needs but pro- duced about two-thirds of the total oil requirements of the Allied Nations, excluding Russia. As a people, we can be deeply grateful that the Nation's petroleum resources were adequate and sufficiently developed to support such a tremendous effort. Even in those critical hours when immediate needs were the paramount issues, a prudent Congress paused to contemplate the importance of an assured long-term supply of liquid fuels. From these deliberations came the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act of 1944, which authorized research and development work on new sources of oil coal, oil shale, and agricultural and forestry products. ce World War II, a civilian demand for 6 million barrels of petroleum prod- ucts has become the order of the day every day. By drilling as many as 39,000 new wells a year, the production rate has been increased enough to meet domestic require- ments by a bare margin. Some imports were necessary, however, to fill both domestic and foreign demands, and these doubtless will increase. Is this policy of exploration within the United States and the development of oil in foreign countries adequate insurance for the fulfillment of our future national needs? This question has two aspects one purely civilian and economic in character and the other significant from the standpoint of our national defense. There are now approximately 4,000 producing oil fields in this country. At first thought, it would appear that production could decline in a considerable number of these fields without materially affecting the over-all daily output. However, 48 percent of the oil comes from only 111 major fields which contain 50 percent of the total proved domestic reserves. It is apparent, then, that the flow from large fields - having proved reserves of 100 million barrels or more each must be sustained if daily production is to be kept at the present levels. Essentially, this means that new major fields must be discovered about as rapidly or perhaps more rapidly than the older ones lose productive capacity. From 1940 through 1947, only eight major fields with estimated reserves of more than 100 million barrels each, were discovered and proved - an average of one such field a year. The total estimated reserve of these eight fields was less than 1 year's supply at the present rate of use. As drilling continues, some existing fields ultimately will prove reserves larger than those now known. Without a pronounced increase in the num- ber of major discoveries, however, the prospects for increasing our present productive level are not encouraging. Any gap that appears between domestic productive capacity and demand could be filled with supplies from proved oil resources abroad. Assuming cheap pipe-line and tanker transportation to the United States, freedom from exorbitant taxes and charges

Jan 1, 1949

By D. E. Wolfson

The Bureau of Mines carbonized 21 coal samples from Fayette, Greene, and Washington Counties, Pa., at 900° C, using the Bureau of Mines-American Gas Association (BM-AGA) method, and determined yields of products and physical properties of the coke. These samples represented high-volatile A Pittsburgh, Sewickley, Waynesburg, and Upper Freeport and medium-volatile Upper Freeport and Lower Kittanning coals. About 20 percent of all coals presently carbonized in commercial coke ovens in the United States are mined in Greene and Washington Counties, principally from the Pittsburgh seam. Sulfur content of the Pittsburgh coals in these counties is moderately high (1.0 to 3.2 percent) but, because of extremely large reserves, accessibility to eastern United States markets and excellent blending characteristics to yield strong coke, these counties will continue to be an important source of metallurgical coals in the future. Most coals from the other seams contained more than 2 percent sulfur, which would limit their use as metallurgical coals.

Jan 1, 1968

By John Ward Smith

Methods for estimating the amounts of nahcolite, dawsonite, and the sum of these two sodium carbonate minerals from oil-yield assay data are developed and evaluated for Green River Formation oil shales from the saline section of Colorado's Piceance Creek Basin. Derived statistically, these estimation methods depend on the fact that these minerals yield water and gas measured during oil-yield assay. The estimation procedures yield values for nahcolite and nahcolite-plus-dawsonite of sufficient accuracy for stratigraphic plotting and correlation, whereas estimates for dawsonite are more generalized. However, resource estimates and reserve computations for both nahcolite and dawsonite accurate within 10 percent of the real value are readily available by summing the mineral amounts calculated by the procedures presented. These estimation procedures are applicable to oil-yield assay data on core samples from more than 30 coreholes which have penetrated the saline section of the Green River Formation in Colorado.

Jan 1, 1972

By S. H. Ash

THE INVESTIGATION of barrier pillars in the Southern field is part of the comprehensive study of the mine water problem in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania by the Federal Bureau of Mines (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18).4 Tim Southern field is in Carbon, Schuylkill, Dauphin, and Lebanon Counties, in eastern Pennsylvania; has an area of 200 square miles; is 70 miles long from Mauch Chunk on the east to the Susquehanna River on the west; and is 1 to 6 miles wide. In the Southern field are 37 underground water pools containing 37312 billion gallons of water (5). Most of these pools overflow to the surface because the barrier pillars controlling them are effective under existent, conditions. Abandonment of mines in the Southern field has resulted in the hooding of 34 percent of the field. The largest tonnage of reserves of anthracite lies in this field, where mining conditions are most difficult. Large reserves of anthra¬cite underlie the abandoned mine workings, and before a great part of these reserves can be developed and extracted, the abandoned workings must be unwatered and kept drained (5).

Jan 1, 1953

By Victor V. Verbinski

This report presents the development of a raw coal concentration sensor for hydro-transport of coal and refuse (rock) from underground mines, and the results of an international test series carried out at the Colorado School of Mines Research Institute in Golden, Colorado, the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Hydraulic Transport Research Facility in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Saskatchewan Research Facility in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, and the Steinkohlenbergbauverein Test Facility in Essen, West Germany. Test results are presented for a three-component sensor and also for the more rugged two-component (all nuclear) sensor.

Jan 1, 1988

By Foster Fraas

The objective of this research was separation of one highly conductive mineral from a second conductive mineral , a procedure which is impractical in commercial electrostatic separators using metal rolls . Such separators permit separation of nonconductive from conductive minerals . A new technique involved use of carrier electrode rolls specially prepared by anodizing and / or oxidizing at high temperatures to form suitable oxide surfaces . Specific oxides included aluminum , copper , and nickel . The significant result provided by the new surfaces was the extension of the separation range to higher conductivities , an extension in relative mineral conductivity from 10-14 mhos . The results are in accordance with the blocking- layer theory .

Jan 1, 1964

By H. H. Schrenk

There are several well-recognized procedures for controlling exposure to hazardous atmospheres in industry. They include (a) substitution of less toxic material, (b) enclosure of processes, (c) wet methods, (d) local exhaust, (e) general ventilation, and (f) use of respiratory protective devices. In addition to their employment as a control measure in occupational exposures, respiratory protective devices also are essential in emergencies that may arise from failure or improper use of other control equipment. Respiratory protective devices usually are employed to supplement other methods of control, as temporary expedients, or when other methods are not readily applicable or practicable. It seems reasonable to assume, however, that where respirators are used consideration has been given to the factors involved and that the devices can provide satisfactory protection if used properly. Their use should not be arrived at simply by a process of elimination of other methods that are more difficult to apply.

Jan 1, 1943

By Floyd D. Everett

The Cougar Spar property is in southwestern Beaver County, Utah, approximately 35 miles by road northwest of Lund, a station on the mainline of the Union Pacific Railroad (fig. 1). Original fluorspar discoveries on the property were made a. short time before 1941. During 1941 lessees produced approximately 600 tons of ores averaging 40 percent CaF2. Bureau of Mines engineers examined the property in 1942 and recommended development. Work was begun in December 1942 and completed in October 1943. The area was mapped by members of the Federal Geological Survey during the project period. Development included surface trenching; drifting, and crosscutting, a short distance below the outcrop. The surface work comprised a total of 440 linear feet of bulldozer and hand trenches. A total of 550 feet of workings was driven on the 100-foot level. Samples were taken for assay from the trench exposures and from the underground workings as work progressed. Pocks in the area of the Cougar Spar property are igneous and consist mainly of fine-grained tuff and quartz monzonite porphyry. The fluorspar mineralization occurs in a northwest fault zone.

Jan 1, 1951

By J. A. Organiscak

The Bureau of Mines recently investigated dust generation and methane liberation during half-and full-web cutting at a double-drum shearer longwall face. This study was conducted to ascertain the health and safety aspects of wider web shearing at longwalls. Results from these underground tests showed that deeper web cutting reduced dust generation and methane liberation per ton of coal mined, while significantly improving shearer production rates. When cutting with the airflow (head-to-tail cut pass) full-web cutting decreased dust generation per ton by 16 pct at the shearer and 6 pct at the tailgate, with an increase in shearer production rate of 72 pct. Methane liberation per short ton also deere~sed by 36 pet at the shearer and 22 pct at the tailgate. Full-web cutting against the airflow (tail-to-head cut pass) decreased dust generation per ton by 41 pct at the shearer and 37 pct at the tail-gate over half-web cutting, with an increase in shearer production rate of 61 pct. Methane liberation per ton also decreased by 35 pct at the shearer and 41 pct at the tailgate. These improvements for full-web cutting are a reflection of improved cutting efficiency (less dust and methane produced from cutting) and less new face area exposed per ton of coal mined (less methane liberated from face per short ton of coal mined).

Jan 1, 1988

By Charles L. Kusik

As part of an effort to establish processes that could be exploited in case of adverse changes in international chromium production and trading patterns, this study was sponsored by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (formerly the Federal Preparedness Agency) through the Bureau of Mines, to experimentally determine the feasibility of recovering chromium from critical scrap metals containing significant quantities of this element. Based on a conceptual pyrometallurgical chromium recovery flowsheet developed at Arthur D. Little, Inc., the experimental program described in this report demonstrated key process steps for the recovery of chromium as ferrochromium in a batch process. The process involves oxidation of chromium into a slag phase, subsequent separation of the slag phase from the remaining metal, followed by reduction of chromium from the slag phase to produce ferrochromium.

Jan 1, 1981

By Thomas Fraser

"INTRODUCTION The Santa River Valley of northern Peru contains extensive deposits of a good-grade anthracite that offer one of the most accessible sources of solid-fuel supply for South America. This region is served by the narrow-gage railroad of the Corporation Peruana del Santa, which taps the coal fields along the Chuquicara River and terminates at the port of Chimbote, where facilities have been provided for loading coal into ocean-going vessels.This Government-sponsored corporation is prosecuting a vigorous program of development in this region, envisaging an intensively industrialized area around Chimbot Bay, fueled and powered by the anthracite of the upper valley and a hydroelectric generating plant now being constructed in the Cahn del Fate, where the Santa River has cut through the coastal range of the Andes.This development also includes the construction of extensive irrigation works to greatly expand agricultural production in the valley and thus estab¬lish the basis for a prosperous, well-balanced, industrial and agricultural community. It is hardly necessary to point out the importance of the local anthracite-mining industry to this general plan.At the invitation of the Peruvian Government, through the agency of David Dasso, chairman of Corpoacion Peruana del Santa, a technical mission was sent to Peru in March, April, and May 1945 to examine these coals and assist the corporation in promoting preparation of the coal for most effective use in the contemplated expansion of industry and trade."

Feb 1, 1948

By Eric E. Ungar

Some fundamental facts regarding noise are summarized. Guidelines for reducing plant noise are indicated, and simple means are discussed for determining, whether quieting of specific equipment items will reduce plant noise significantly. Design and installation recommendations are made for quieting chutes by means of dams, impact cushioning pads, impact shields, and damping materials, and for quieting; screens by means of resilient decks, lined screen bottoms, drive mechanism enclosures, and side plate additions. A brief account is appended of the wear and productivity performance of resilient materials observed in three cleaning plants.

Jan 1, 1976

By Ruth F. Brinkley

Principle activities of the Bureau of Mines Explosives Research Laboratory from July 1, 1960 to June 30, 1961 are reviewed briefly in Part 1. Part 1 also includes data obtained in connect ion with several minor investigations which are not sufficient to warrant separate publications. Part 2 gives brief abstracts of publications that appeared during fiscal year 1961; in general, the research reported in these publications antedates this period.

Jan 1, 1963

By R. T. MacMillan

A number of chemical techniques have been applied to manganese ores from three areas of Aroostook County, Maine. Although large tonnages of these ores have been proved, they are low grade, and their exploitation has awaited a suitable beneficiation scheme. As conventional ore-dressing methods had failed to yield satisfactory results, attention was turned to chemical procedures. Leaching with dilute (7-percent) H2S04 extracted over 90 percent of the manganese from ore of the Dudley farm area, consuming 3.8 pounds of acid per pound of manganese extracted. Ores from the Littleton Ridge and Maple Mountain-Hovey Mountain areas were less amenable to this treatment, yielding approximately 80 and 60 percent of their Mn content, respectively. To increase the percentage extraction of manganese in the latter two ores, a number of factors were varied, including (1) acid concentration in the extracting solution, (2) ratio of acid to Mn in the slurry, and (3) preliminary heat treatment of the ore with a reducing agent. Other acids, including HNO3, HC1, and H2SO3, were tried also; however, no significant improvements in the Mn leached from Maple Mountain-Hovey Mountain ore were made. The manganese extraction of Littleton Ridge ore was raised to 90 percent by providing 9 to 11 pounds of HNO3 per pound of Mn in the ore.

Jan 1, 1954

As part of a continuing program of evaluating the Nation's crude-oil resource, this report presents information pertaining to resource, primary reserve, and potential waterflood reserve for 3,209 selected reservoirs contained in 24 oil-producing States, as of January 1, 1968. To that date the selected reservoirs had not been subjected to pressure-maintenance or secondary-recovery operations. These reservoirs also met the following parameters: (1) a minimum of five oil-producing wells on January 1, 1968, (2) a minimum of 50 acres areal extent, (3) a minimum of 50,000 bbl of oil ultimate primary recovery, and (4) the principal reservoir energy was other than active water encroachment. The selected 3,209 reservoirs produced 527 million bbl of oil in 1967, about 17 pct of U.S, total production. Primary oil reserve was 4,983 million stb; in addition, there was 6,043 million stb of potential water- flood oil reserve. Oil resource in the selected reservoirs was 59,547 million stb. A brief history and outlook of waterflooding are presented for each State. Depth and producing rate statistics and geologic distributions of production, resource, reserve, and potential waterflood reserve for the selected reservoirs are presented by States in the appendix. Also included in the appendix are description, history, and technique modifications of waterflooding, and a preliminary cost estimate of a closed-system water-injection project.

Jan 1, 1970