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By Phillip N. Yasnowsky

"In this Bureau of Mines report, the Federal income tax treatment of mineral exploration and development expenditures is summarized, and changes in the tax treatment of these expenditures since 1951 are detailed and analyzed. Although no attempt is made to establish causal relationships, major tax changes favorable to exploration and development activities did occur in 1951 and 1966 when the Nation was engaged in military actions and the economy was expanding. More recent changes have been unfavorable to exploration and development and were parts of major tax reform efforts. INTRODUCTIONThis Bureau of Mines report discusses the Federal tax law provisions relating to mineral exploration and development expenditures. These provisions, contained mainly in sections 616 and 617 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 (Title 26 of the U.S. Code), apply specifically to minerals (other than oil and gas), and thus are of interest to the Bureau of Mines.Bureau of Mines involvement in this subject stems from the legislative mandate in the 1913 amendments to the Organic Act of 1910 (the Act creating the Bureau) to conduct economic investigations of the mineral industries. Congressional concern with the financial conditions in the economic and mineral industries was expressed more recently in the Mining and Minerals Policy Act of 1970 and in the National Materials and Minerals Policy, Research, and Development Act of 1980. The General Accounting Office recommended in 1976 that the Department of the Interior ""identify and evaluate laws and agency programs that affect maintaining and developing a sound and stable domestic mining and minerals industry"" (17, p. iii). 2Taxes, a source of revenue to governments, are a cost to private firms. Thus, taxes directly affect private sector profits, and unique tax provisions are designed to encourage (or discourage) activities such as agriculture, construction, or mining. Even the international competitiveness of the domestic mineral industries may be affected by taxes because many minerals are traded in world markets."

Jan 1, 1985

By W. J. Kroll

This investigation was undertaken with the idea of studying a number of unconventional methods for making chromium to determine whether production cost could be lowered and to discuss some of the more recently described processes. These comprise carbon reduction of the oxide in vacuum, nitride dissociation, fusion electrolysis of the chloride, amalgam method, iodide dissociation, calcium reduction of the oxide, hydrogen reduction of the chloride, and reduction of this compound with zinc and with magnesium. Preference is given this latter method, which is shown in a flow sheet. Special attention is given purification of the chloride and separation of the vacuum at about 900° C. A reduction method for the elimination of traces of oxide contained in pure chromium by pure hydrogen obtained from the dissociation of zirconium hydride is described. The various methods are compared in a table in the appendix. Aluminothermic and silicothermic methods for the reduction of chromium oxide and the aqueous electrolysis have been disregarded in this investigation.

Jan 1, 1950

By E. L. Fosse, W. S. Wright

"INTRODUCTION Preliminary and detailed exploratory examinations of iron and copper ores on Prince of Wales Island have been conducted by the Bureau of Mines from early in 1942 until the end of 1944. Among these investigations was that of the Jumbo magnetite deposit, which was visited by Stephen P. Holt, an engineer of the Bureau of Mines, during a preliminary examination of the Copper Mountain and Jumbo properties September 15 to 18, 1943, During the months of June, July, and August 1944, a more detailed examination, which consisted essentially of mapping and sampling, was made by the authors working in conjunction with George C. Kennedy of the Geological Survey, Geological, topographical, and dip-needle contour maps were made of the area, and 97 channel samples were cut.ACKNOWLEDGMENTIn its program of exploration of mineral deposits, the Bureau of Mines has as its primary objective the more effective utilization of our mineral resources to the end that they make the greatest possible contribution to national security and economy. It is the policy of the Bureau to publish the facts developed by each exploratory project as soon as practicable after its conclusion. The Mining Branch, Lowell B. Moon, chief, conducts preliminary examinations, performs the actual exploratory work, and prepares the final report. The Metallurgical Branch, R. G. Knickerbocker, chief, analyzes sam¬ples and performs beneficiation tests. Both these branches are under the supervision of Dr. R. S. Dean, assistant director.Special acknowledgment is made to R. D. Stewart, Territorial Commissioner of Mines and former general manager, and to Duncan Campbell, Ketchikan, Alaska, former mine superintendent of the Jumbo mine. Acknowledgment is also due to George C. Kennedy of the Federal Geological Survey for extending cooperative assistance in topographical mapping, dip-needle surveying, and geological study of the deposits. Further acknowledgment is made to C. Travis Anderson, chief, Rolla Division, Metallurgical Branch, and other members of that division for conducting beneficiation tests on Jumbo Basin ores."

Oct 1, 1946

By P. M. Ambrose

This report describes an accident, which took place in the Chemical Corrosion Laboratory at the College Park, Md., Station of the Federal Bureau of Mines. The accident occurred while Walter L. Acherman, chemist, was performing a routine manipulation during a corrosion experiment involving commercially pure titanium and red-fuming nitric acid. There was a sudden and very violent reaction, and a large quantity of acid was thrown in the face and over the body of Acherman, causing serious injury. L. B. Golden, chief of the Chemical Corrosion Section, was exposed to nitric acid fumes during the ensuing rescue and first-aid operations and died on January 25, 1954. According to the medical report, the direct cause of Mr. Golden's death was pulmonary edema and confluent bronchopneumonia; the contributary cause, was inhalation of fumes from red fuming nitric acid. The following employees of the College Park Station contributed to this report by supplying information on the accident and assisted in the rescue operation: L. B. Golden, chief, Chemical Corrosion Section; T. E. Green, chemist; Robert Warf field, chemist; L. A. DeVivo, laboratory mechanic; D. W. Chalkley, laboratory mechanic; E. H. Neagle, laboratory welder; and R. L. Heath, laboratory general mechanic.

Jan 1, 1955

By John C. Machisak

THIS CHAPTER of the Minerals Yearbook (Volume III) contains overall injury experience for coal mines, both anthracite and bituminous, coke plants, petroleum and natural gas, peat, and asphalt and related bitumens (native); metal mines, their metallurgical plants, including ore-dressing plants and primary nonferrous reduction plants and refineries; nonmetal mines; nonmetal mills; sand and gravel operations; slag (iron blast-furnace) plaints; and stone quarries and their related pants. Volume I of the yearbook contains a chapter showing injury experience and employment data treated separately by metal mines, nonmetal mines, quarries and their related plants, metallurgical plants (ore-dressing plants and primary nonferrous reduction plants and refineries are shown separately), nonmetal mills, sand and gravel plants, and iron blast-furnace slag plants. Volume II contains injury and employment experience in the fuel industries (coal, coke, petroleum and natural gas, asphalt and related bitumens (native), and peat. Injury and employment data are submitted voluntarily for the mineral operations through an industry canvass made by the Bureau of Mines, except for the coal industry, whose reports are mandatory. Information published in this chapter is the result of this canvass. Figures presented in this chapter for 1961 are preliminary except for anthracite, peat, coke, petroleum and natural gas, asphalt and related bitumens, and slag. These preliminary data, with the exception of bituminous coal, are a summation of reports received by May 31, 1962, from the operators showing their injury and employment experience. Estimations of injury and employment experience are not included in these preliminary data.

Jan 1, 1962

By Jr. Watts, B. K. Cantrell, D. H. Carlson, K. L. Rubow

"The use of diesel equipment in underground coal mines is controversial because ""whole diesel exhaust"" is regarded as ""a potential occupational carcinogen"" by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Threshold limit values (TLVs) are recommended for the gaseous pollutants; CO, CO2, NO, NO2, SO2, and some hydrocarbons emitted in diesel exhaust. There is, however, no TLV recommended for diesel exhaust aerosols (DEA) nor is there a standard method for sampling these aerosols.The University of Minnesota and the Bureau of Mines have collaborated to develop a personal diesel exhaust aerosol sampler (PDEAS) which utilizes size selective, inertial impaction and gravimetric analysis. During the field tests of this sampler, numerous air quality measurements were conducted in underground coal mines using diesel equipment. The objective of this report is to present these data and to assess the impact of diesel face haulage equipment on mine air quality.Air quality data were collected in four underground coal mines using continuous mining methods with diesel haulage equipment. Daily samples were collected at the section intake, haulageway, and on haulage vehicles. Both full-and partial-shift samples were collected using a variety of aerosol instruments, including the PDEAS and the micro-orifice, uniform deposit impactor (MOUDI) which sample the mine aerosol diesel exhaust fraction. Two of the mines were also monitored for the major gaseous constituents found in diesel exhaust CO, CO2, NO, NO2, and SO2. These measurements were made by either collecting bag samples for subsequent gas analysis or by Palmes dosimeters.The concentrations of CO, CO2, NO, NO2, and SO2, were well below regulated levels. The mine average DEA concentration determined by the PDEAS in the haulageway for the three mines surveyed using this instrument was 0.79 mg/m3, with a standard deviation of 0.19 mg/m3. DEA contributed 65% of the respirable aerosol, at this location. These results were the same as the mean DEA concentrations calculated from size distribution measurements obtained using the MOUDI. This was 0.78 mg/m3, with a standard deviation of 0.22 mg/m3."

Mar 1, 1992

By C. M. McCulloch

Examination of several coalbeds in Walker County, Ala., Cambria, Greene, and Fayette Counties, Pa., and Raleigh and Wyoming Counties, W. Va., indicates that cleat orientations are similar throughout a vertical sequence of strata. Studies of cleat orientation were carried out in underground mines that are operating in separate coalbeds vertically above one another. The data show that over a vertical separation of 100 to 400 feet, the average difference in coal cleat orientation between mines is 04° for the face and 08° for the butt cleat. Variations of coal cleat direction between coalbeds examined in strip-mined areas show similar values. Cleat orientations measured at outcrops agree well with the directions measured underground, suggesting that the amount of vertical separation between coalbeds has little effect on the resulting differences in cleat directions. The largest variation of cleat directions between adjacent coalbeds occurs where a large horizontal distance separates two sample locations. Cleat orientations for deeper coalbeds are most reliable where the data are taken from directly above.

Jan 1, 1976

By Frederick K. Allgaier

This is the first in a series of progress reports on the longwall subsidence research program at the Bureau of Mines Denver Research Center. As part of this program, the Bureau and the Utah Power and Light Co. are cooperating on a study conducted at the Deer Creek Mine, which is directed toward developing the capability to estimate the surface subsidence resulting from longwall mining in a geologic, topographic, and mining environment common to coalfields in the Western United States. A monitoring network has been established at the Deer Creek Mine to measure subsidence over four adjacent longwall panels. To date, two panels have been mined. Subsidence began as the first panel was mined and continued for 1 year following completion of the panel, during which time the adjacent panel was mined" A maximum of 2.7 feet of subsidence occurred over the two longwall panels mined at a depth of 1,500 feet. Because of the length of time that subsidence continued after mining, the final subsidence profiles and angle of draw have not yet been determined.

Jan 1, 1982

By Ralph H. Whaite

The Bureau of Mines program for microfilming maps of abandoned mines in the Pennsylvania anthracite region is described. A catalog of the maps that have been microfilmed in the Eastern Middle anthracite field--the first area to be covered in the program--is presented. Additional catalogs will be published as significant mining areas are completed.

Jan 1, 1965

By Ralph H. Whaite

The Bureau of Mines program for microfilming maps of abandoned mines in the Pennsylvania anthracite region is described. A catalog of the maps that have been microfilmed in the Eastern Middle anthracite field--the first area to be covered in the program--is presented. Additional catalogs will be published as significant mining areas are completed.

Jan 1, 1965

By Dennis R. Dolinar, Jeff Dubbert, Hamid Maleki

The advance-and-relieve method benefits from lateral destressing associated with mining in laminated rocks and a high horizontal stress regime. This stress control method is based on measurements showing that occurrence of rock failure in the roof and floor of an entry (or caving of roof strata in a panel gob) results in redistribution of stresses in adjacent entries. By locating other entries within the shadow zone of the first entry (or gob), improvements in stability can be achieved. Numerical modeling proved useful in studying the basic mechanics of lateral relief while investigating the sensitivity of results to different geologic and mining parameters using controlled experiments. It was shown that failure of rocks near an entry results in redistribution of horizontal stress and shifting of the stress to higher horizons. Measurements from two mines are consistent in showing significant horizontal stress reductions in comparison with the far-field stress regime within the destressed zone. Although the far-field stress regime is very anisotropic, these measurements show near-equal secondary principal horizontal stresses, or perhaps a switch in orientation, as a result of destressing. Stress relief is achieved through lateral movement and relaxation of rocks along weak bedding planes toward adjacent caved zones (or softened zone). Because of cave geometry in the advancing panel, horizontal stress concentrations occur near the cave line both in front of the face and to the sides. The horizontal stress concentration reaches 1.7 times the far-field stress ahead of the face. This stress increase is significant and may cause structural damage in this zone benefiting from additional support. In the next advancing panel located within the shadow zone of the gob, horizontal stresses are significantly reduced in the roof (by 50%). Thus, the stability of future advancing panel can be improved through prudent layout designs and sequencing. The width of the relief zone is significantly influenced by the height of the softened (or cave zone) and rock mass properties.

By D. R. Dollnar

At a mine in central PA, high horizontal stresses have caused long running roof falls resulting in hazardous conditions for the miners and the premature abandonment of panels. Because of these conditions, the mine requested assistance of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in utilizing the 'advance and relieve method to mitigate the affects of horizontal stress on the mine roof. "Advance and relieve" mining involves the removal of a pillar or a portion of a pillar during development, thereby creating a cave along one side of the panel. Following cave development, the horizontal stress is relieved over the workings adjacent to the cave in the active panel. The mine has used this system in three panels with a significant reduction in stress damage and no large roof falls.

Jan 1, 2002

By Thomas W. Camm

This study was done to evaluate the costs of various dumping operations at waste and spoil piles. It has been theorized that accidents associated with dumping operations might be reduced by short-dumping rather than edge-dumping, but many operators have been reluctant to use short-dumping because they believe it is not as cost effective as edge-dumping. To evaluate this perception, researchers at the Spokane Research Laboratory of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health reviewed the costs of various dumping methods at waste and spoil piles. The study found that overall cost differences between the two methods were not significant in most cases. However, while overall cost differences between the two methods appear small, capital costs could be more significant when short-dumping if numerous dump sites are used concurrently. The choice of which method to use should be based on considerations of the safety of dozer and truck operators.

Jan 1, 2000

By J. Ritchey

This report describes the engineering feasibility and economic advantages of using a mobile bridge-type cross-pit belt conveyor system in conjunction with a large dragline to excavate and transport spoils in a typical Western surface coal mine. The studies show that such a system could be built to survive operational and climatic mining conditions, and that its implementation would offer a reduction in both acquisition and operating costs versus conventional mining units of comparable rapacity. Reclamation costs can also be significantly reduced, and the total reclamation process accelerated, making the cross-pit conveyor system attractive to mine Owners and environmentalists alike.

Jan 1, 1976

By J. H. East

Potash is one of the essential chemicals used in fertilizing soil deficient in natural minerals . Europe uses a large tonnage of potash in the form of easily soluble salts , and this is particularly true of those countries where the natural minerals in the soil have been exhausted owing to intensive cropping of the land . The application of potash to the soil in these countries is essential if normal crops are to be obtained ; during the war , some European countries were unable to obtain sufficient potash , and productivity of the farming areas declined seriously . • The largest -known deposits of potash in the world ; with the possible. exception of Russia , occur in Germany , and the German output of processed salts constituted about 65 percent of world production prior to the war . The German potash-plant installations are large , modern , brick and steel construction and apparently built for a planned operation of many years . Two districts produced approximately 80 percent of the German potash; the Werra -Fulda district , near Vacha , had the largest production , and the Sudharz district , near Nordhausen and Sonderhausen , was second . (Fig . 1. ) Hannover and Stassfurt were two smaller producers . Potash fertilizers are rated in terms of potassium oxide (K20 ) . The usual basis for calculation of production or application of the salt is to reduce the potash content to 40 percent K₂0 .

May 1, 1947

By R. B. Schluter

Drying and preheating (partial induration) the green, unfired iron ore pellets is a means of reducing the energy required to produce metallized pellets. The Bureau of Mines processed three magnetite and two hematite concentrates through the unit operations of pelletizing, preheating in air, and reduction to metal to determine the effects of preheating upon the properties of the metallized pellets. The pellets were prepared in a 16-inch-diameter laboratory balling drum. Preheating and metallization were carried out in an externally heated 4-inch-ID by 4-inch-long stainless steel drum using air for the preheating atmosphere and lignite char as a reductant. The results 'varied considerably: two of the magnetites spalled when preheated in air at temperatures of 900° C and above, and the third magnetite and the hematite flotation concentrate required complete induration at 1,300° C to produce satisfactory pellets. The earthy hematite ore yielded excellent pellets at all preheat temperatures.

Jan 1, 1972

By Kevin Ashley

Because toxicities may differ for Cr(VI) compounds of varying solubility, some countries and organizations have promulgated different occupational exposure limits (OELs) for soluble and insoluble hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) compounds, and analytical methods are needed to determine these species in workplace air samples. To address this need, international standard methods ASTM D6832 and ISO 16740 have been published that describe sequential extraction techniques for soluble and insoluble Cr(VI) in samples collected from occupational settings. However, no published performance data were previously available for these Cr(VI) sequential extraction procedures. In this work, the sequential extraction methods outlined in the relevant international standards were investigated. The procedures tested involved the use of either deionized water or an ammonium sulfate/ ammonium hydroxide buffer solution to target soluble Cr(VI) species. This was followed by extraction in a sodium carbonate/sodium hydroxide buffer solution to dissolve insoluble Cr(VI) compounds. Three-step sequential extraction with (1) water, (2) sulfate buffer and (3) carbonate buffer was also investigated. Sequential extractions were carried out on spiked samples of soluble, sparingly soluble and insoluble Cr(VI) compounds, and analyses were then generally carried out by using the diphenylcarbazide method. Similar experiments were performed on paint pigment samples and on airborne particulate ?lter samples collected from stainless steel welding. Potential interferences from soluble and insoluble Cr(III) compounds, as well as from Fe(II), were investigated. Interferences from Cr(III) species were generally absent, while the presence of Fe(II) resulted in low Cr(VI) recoveries. Two-step sequential extraction of spiked samples with (?rst) either water or sulfate buffer, and then carbonate buffer, yielded quantitative recoveries of soluble Cr(VI) and insoluble Cr(VI), respectively. Three-step sequential extraction gave excessively high recoveries of soluble Cr(VI), low recoveries of sparingly soluble Cr(VI), and quantitative recoveries of insoluble Cr(VI). Experiments on paint pigment samples using two-step extraction with water and carbonate buffer yielded varying percentages of relative fractions of soluble and insoluble Cr(VI). Sequential extractions of stainless steel welding fume air ?lter samples demonstrated the predominance of soluble Cr(VI) compounds in such samples. The performance data obtained in this work support the Cr(VI) sequential extraction procedures described in the international standards.

Jan 1, 2009

By Marcia L. Harris

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), as part of its continuing research program for evaluating coal dust explosion hazards, has investigated several areas in which current practices may need to be updated in order to adequately protect mines against coal dust propagated explosions. In the United States, current rock dusting requirements remained largely unchanged since 1969. US Title 30 Code of Federal Regulations Section 75.403 is based on a coal dust particle size survey performed in the 1920s and later was supplemented by full-scale testing of the rock dust ability to inert a coal dust explosion. NIOSH recently conducted a comprehensive survey of US underground coal mines to determine the range of coal particle sizes found in dust samples collected from the mine entries. Due to advancements in technology and modern coal mining techniques, the current coal dust particles in intake airways are significantly finer than those found in the mines in the 1920s. According to past full-scale dust explosion test results, the current rock dusting practices used in today?s mines to inert a coal dust explosion may not be adequate. Other closely related issues such as rock dust testing methods and sampling procedures are discussed.

Jan 1, 2009

By Thomas Fraser

IN a Nation-wide appraisal of coking-coal reserves and of the feasibility of expanding them by upgrading marginal coals, it is natural that the Pittsburgh region of Pennsylvania should be considered first. Here, where the American iron and steel industry started, the Pittsburgh coal bed is of paramount importance. The use of coke in iron blast furnaces is said to have begun with the discovery that good blast-furnace fuel could readily be made by a simple method of coking Pittsburgh coal. To the present time, the prosperity of the steel industry has depended largely on utilization of this great coal reserve and the cheap transportation afforded by the Monongahela River system. OBJECT AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION The initial project in the study of upgrading marginal coking coals was laid out in this area, which contains large reserves of Pittsburgh coal contiguous to the Monongahela and its navigable tributaries. Much of the Pittsburgh coal remaining here is known to have a high sulfur content. The problem of reducing the sulfur to meet metallurgical requirements already has received much attention, and it is considered to be one of the most difficult technologic problems in the field of coal washing.

Jan 1, 1950

By M. C. Irani, Maurice Deul, M. G. Zabetakis, T. G. Bobick

This survey was conducted to determine the magnitude of the methane emission and control problem in U.S. bituminous coal mines. The resultant data indicate that the emission rate for any given coalbed depends primarily on the coal production rate and on mine depth, as well as on the nature of the coalbed and the surrounding strata. An excellent correlation was found between (1) the methane emission rate and (2) the product of coal production rate and mine depth for the mines in the Pittsburgh, Pocahontas Nos. 3 and 4, and the Illinois Nos. 5 and 6 coalbeds. The highest total emission rates found in U.S. bituminous coal mines were as follows, in million cubic feet per day: Monongalia County, W. Va., 39; Marion County, W. Va., 30.4; McDowell County, W. Va., 13.1; Washington County, Pa., 11.9; Greene County, Pa., 11.4; Buchanan County, Va., 21.6; Jefferson County, Ala., 10.3; and Franklin County, Ill., 6.6.

Jan 1, 1972