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By G. F. Kuncir

The analysis described herein evaluates the Bureau of Mines Program for Advancing Mining Technology - Oil Shale in terms of the economic benefits which may be derived for the Nation as a result of its successful research and development efforts. On the basis of postulated oil shale production scenarios, benefit-cost ratio indicators are computed for the program elements as they apply to surface, underground, and modified in situ oil shale mining systems. Eight value indicators are used to measure the Program's beneficial impact on the future oil shale industry in relation to planned research and development costs. These are: capital cost savings, operating cost savings, labor savings environmental quality maintenance cost reduction, reduction in production costs, byproduct production benefits, total production benefits, and additions to recoverable reserves. Program costs are aggregated from 1974 through 1987 and major benefits are accrued from 1982 through 2040. Both cost and benefit streams are discounted to mid-1975 present value.

Jan 1, 1977

By Harry R. Johnson

Domestic expenditures by the U.S. petroleum industry have exhibited distinctive shifts in emphasis over the past 20 years. From the end of World War II to 1955, expenditures for all phases of the industry expanded. Although over one-half of all expenditures were for production, the relative emphasis was changed after 1956-58 from production toward processing and marketing. The period 1967-69 marked the beginning of a return to emphasis on exploration and production. These trends in expenditure patterns are logical and rational when related to domestic and international economic conditions and to the widespread application of improved production technology. As the immense job of developing the oil resources of Alaska and other regions begins, the petroleum industry will continue to turn to external sources for working capital. Long-term debt will probably be the principal method of external financing through 1970, but a definite shift toward new common and preferred stocks will be made. Higher product prices may be sought by the petroleum industry, but the economics of crude-oil production, changes in the tax structure, and possible changes in the oil imports control program make the price structure of crude oil and crude-oil products unpredictable at the present time.

Jan 1, 1970

By C. L. Klingman

The Bureau of Mines tested eight commercially available, activated charcoals experimentally to compare the following characteristics: capacity for adsorption of nitrogen at 77° K and 170 atmospheres' pressure, surface area, carbon tetrachloride adsorption capacity, hardness, and density. The nitrogen adsorption test was devised to simulate plant conditions occurring in the final step of purification in Bureau helium faciliti.es. The remaining tests were patterned after empirical acceptance tests that are widely used throughout the adsorbent industry. Surface area and carbon tetrachloride adsorption correlated well with nitrogen adsorption. The samples with low density generally had better adsorption qualities than those of higher density. The carbon tetrachloride test appeared to be the most practical for selecting a charcoal to be purchased, but an attrition, or hardness test should also be run to be sure the charcoal will not crumble in use.

Jan 1, 1966

By G. L. Bloomsburg

This report describes work which was done to apply an existing finite element computer program UNSAT2 to the unsteady, unsaturated flow of water through waste shale piles. The work was done in three phases: 1. Verification of program through comparison with existing data. 2. Verification of program through simulation of flow from field seepage ponds at Rifle, Colorado. Considerable laboratory work was done in this phase to obtain capillary pressure-saturation-relative permeability data and hydraulic conductivity values for retorted shale. 3. Application of program to flow due to natural rainfall in a section through the Piceance Basin in Colorado, and a typical waste shale pile.

Jan 1, 1978

By S. D. Hill

To help insure the continued viability of the minerals and materials sector of the U.S. economy, the Bureau of Mines is conducting research and disseminating technology that will result in more efficient minerals extraction. As part of this effort, a process is being investigated that involves an aqueous chlorine-oxygen leaching procedure to treat complex sulfide concentrates to produce ZnCl2. Subsequent fused-salt electrolysis of the ZnCI2 produces high-purity zinc metal. Previous reports described preliminary, small-scale research on the chlorine-oxygen leaching system and fused-salt electrolysis of ZnCl2. This report discusses the details of design, construction, and longterm, continuous operation of both monopolar and bipolar fused-salt cells. The effects of temperature, electrode gap, current density, electrolyte composition, and electrode configuration on current efficiency and energy consumption were determined for a ZnCl2-KC1-NaCl electrolyte system. Zinc metal was produced at the rate of about 50 lb/day in a monopolar cell which was operated continuously for 60 days with current efficiencies from 85.8 to 98.6 pct and an average power consumption of 2.1 kwhr/lb. Bipolar cells with several different electrode configurations were operated for 90 days. A current efficiency of about 70 pct and power consumption of about 1.7 kwhr/lb of zinc were achieved using a three-electrode-pair, bipolar assembly with a chlorine gas lift pump to circulate electrolyte.

Jan 1, 1981

By P. M. Gruzensky

A survey of the literature has been made covering the extraction of bismuth from raw materials, its separation from lead, and its subsequent refining. The use of aqueous, nonaqueous, and fused electrolytes in electrolytic refining is reviewed. This literature survey has been prepared preliminary to some proposed investigations concerning the electrometallurgy of bismuth, and, although an effort has been made to cover a majority of the applicable references, a critical review was not attempted and no assertion is made that this manuscript is exhaustive in nature. Titles of publications in parenthesis are translations from the language in which the reference was originally published.

Jan 1, 1954

By F. R. Cattoir

Analytical methods are presented in this paper for determining soluble titanium, total titanium, indicated titanium, and average effective valence in titanium chloride - sodium chloride mixtures. In addition, data are given showing the effects of coarse and fine grinding on the degree of oxidation and average effective valence of such samples. INTRODUCTION The Electrometallurgical Experiment Station at Boulder City, Nev., as part of the Bureau of Mines program to obtain more efficient utilization of our natural resources, has been developing and improving titanium extractive metallurgical methods and techniques since 1945. Numerous reports have been published describing development of the Kroll process,4/ the electrorefining technique,5/ and methods of analyzing titanium sponge.6/

Jan 1, 1957

By R. S. Dean

The development of metallurgical processes may be divided into periods : First , the discovery of a basic reaction which brings about the production of the desired product from the available raw material ; second , a long stage of mechanical development during which little or no attention is paid to the reaction itself ; and third , a careful study of the reaction . Most metallurgical processes are to -day approaching the end of the second period . This we may illustrate by the steel process . The reaction of carbon with iron ore to produce pig iron and the subsequent refinement of the pig iron by an oxidation reaction is very old . Development in modern times has been almost entirely mechanical , the development of the blast furnace , furnace , the Bessemer process , the Siemens process , and even the Aston process for wrought iron being mechanical improvements almost entirely . Metallurgy is now entering a phase where the reactions are being considered . The question of how far can they be made to proceed is being repeatedly asked . As mechanical processes are improved , we approach a limit to which our basic reactions can be pushed which is determined by the nature of the reactions themselves . We want to know : How far can iron be decarbonized by iron oxide ? How low can the oxygen of copper be reduced by any given reaction? How efficiently can the fuel in a zinc reduction process be used ? The demand for purer metals and lower production costs has forced these and similar questions upon us . How are we to answer them ? The determination of these equilibria or end points of metallurgical reactions by direct means is fraught with difficulty because here we must overcome mechanical difficulties which too often become the limiting factors even in the laboratory and we do nottherefore get the actual limit to which the reaction itself may be carried . Further , there are so many reactions of metallurgical materials that to survey each separately is a job to give pause to any experimenter or group of experimenters .

Dec 1, 1930

By Paul Meadows

The Buckrange reservoir, Stephens field, Ark., is approaching the economic limit of production under present operating conditions. Over 100 million barrels of oil remaining in the reservoir will not be recovered by primary producing methods. The Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the Arkansas Oil and Gas Com-mission, made the petroleum-engineering study presented in this report to aid operators in evaluating secondary-recovery possibilities in the reservoir and in planning secondary-recovery programs if their initiation is decided. The Stephens field, in Columbia, Nevada, and Ouachita Counties, Ark., is about 12 miles northeast of Magnolia, Ark., and 15 miles west of the Smackover field. Surface elevations in the area average about 240 feet above sea level.

Jan 1, 1956

By Charles Fried

The Coal Mine Health and Safety Act passed by Congress in 1969, called for research to alleviate the occupational stresses and hazards of coal miners. Spurred by a series of recent mine disasters the Congress directed the Bureau of Mines to increase its attention to the welfare of miners and to develop better working conditions and personal equipment for use in the mines. As one of the early steps in carrying out the provisions of the Act, the Bureau of Mines commissioned the Behavioral Sciences Group at the National Bureau of Standards to conduct a survey of the state of the art in ergonomics (human factors) as it has been applied to mining.

Jan 1, 1972

By J. Koster

[In lQ jG thc E'lcct,ro:~(: L7.l :~u..-ic:ll S;%cti ?n of t?c :I. tcIl~tr,-;lcal 3:vi cioa, ?U~CE~U of lv!irtos, bc,~m an 9.ct iv.t In-:?*t ik7;5i GI of r.:ct.l-;c?;is for rccovcrin,; niclrel, cop?ir, an2 ?? cciou:; ~ot-1 c 1;-on or; :; of tile 3unl~crvi~.l~~ tiistrict in C1ni.k Coult:r, !Icl.r. ]

Jan 1, 1939

By D. W. Bridges

Solvent extraction has become important in recent years as a unit process in extractive metallurgy. The flexibility and simplicity of the technique have attracted widespread attention, and numerous papers describing actual and projected metallurgical applications have been published. However, differences in terminology, procedure, objectives, and standards, as reflected in reports by different operators and investigators, have sometimes made appraisals and comparisons difficult. Consequently, a need appeared for n series of basic reports on the subject. This Bureau of Mines Information Circular is the first of such a series. It deals with the status of solvent extraction in metallurgy, as well as with the rudiments and terminology of the unit operation. In analytical chemistry, extraction of molecular species from aqueous media by immiscible organic solvents has been used for many years to separate and determine chemical elements (61).4 Complex chlorides of iron and other metals are readily soluble in ethers and ketones, as are the nitrates of uranium and thorium. Most metals are extractable as complex salts of some organic reagent, such as dithizone, 8-hydroxyquinoline, or cupferron.

Jan 1, 1962

By J. J. Dowd

1. The Pittsburgh bed is the most important bed in Ohio County, and virtually the entire production of coal in the county comes from this bed. 2. Known measured and indicated reserves in all beds, based on a minimum thickness of 14 inches and 1,800 tons per acre-foot of-coal in place, are estimated at 365 million short tons as of January 1, 1954. Of this total, 356 million short tons is in beds 28 inches and more thick. Areas in each bed were omitted from the estimate because available data relative to the bed characteristics are too meager to make an estimate that conforms with the definitions of measured and indicated coal adopted for this study. Should future drilling or development prove reserves in these areas, such reserves should be added to the total estimated reserves.

Jan 1, 1955

By Edward Cogan

Equilibrium phase diagram studies of zirconium- rare earth metal alloys by the Bureau of Mines at its Albany Metallurgy Research Center prompted the development of a rapid gravimetric method for determining rare earths in zirconium in which the rare earths are absorbed from sulfuric acid solution of the alloy on a cation exchange resin . The sample in 10 percent H2SO4 is introduced into the column , the zirconium is eluted with 10 percent H2SO4 , and the rare earths are eluted with (NH4 )2SO4 solution and precipitated with NH4OH . A tracer technique was employed to determine the efficiency of the procedure . Y203 and europium 154 - 152 (Oak Ridge ) were added to 10 g of zirconium and taken through the entire procedure . Recovery averaged 97.6 percent on 0.002 μg europium in the rare earth fraction . Rare earths were determined in the range 0.10 to 90 percent .

Jan 1, 1964

By R. H. Jefferson

An electrochemical method to selectively determine sulfur dioxide in the presence of sulfur trioxide was investigated. A hydrophobic gas-permeable membrane separates the gas sample solution from an internal filling solution containing a fixed quantity of chloride ion and a sufficiently large excess of sodium bisulfite so that its concentration may be considered constant. Sulfur dioxide diffuses through the membrane to dissolve in the internal filling solution and liberates an equivalent quantity of hydrogen ions. The electromotive force between a precision-ground, flat-ended pH electrode, which acts as the sensing element, and a chloride sensing electrode, which acts as the reference element, gives a direct measure of S02 in the gas sample solution. Calibration curves in water, tetrachloromercurate (TCM) , and citrate buffer absorption solutions were closely parallel with slopes in their linear segments, ranging from 57 to 52 mv/decade of S02 concentration. The slopes compare reasonably well with the theoretically expected slope of 58 millivolts at 21° C. The water standard curve was linear with respect to the logarithm of S02 concentration from 1 to 1,000 ppm S02; the TCM standard curve was linear from 10 to 2,000 ppm S02; and the citrate standard curve was linear from 30 to 5,000 ppm S02' The high efficiency and nontoxicity of citrate favor it as a substitute for the conventionally used TCM in the absorption solution.

Jan 1, 1976

By R. W. Huber, R. C. Wiley, V. C. Petersen

"Three arc- melted ingots, two of a t itanium-7 percent manganese all oy and the third of unalloyed titanium, were forged and rolled into 3/ 4-inch plate; comparative data were obtained on these processes. The finished plate, part of which was used by the Naval Bureau of Ordnance, was tested for mechanical and other properties.These properties were correlated with sponge purity, forging technique, rolling temperature, and cooling rate from the rolling temperature. For the alloy material, transformation data were obtained, and their age-hardening characteristics were studied. The temperature-impact relationship was established for rolled sections from all three ingots.INTRODUCTIONArc -melted ingots of unalloyed titanium and a titanium-manganese alloy were fabricated into plate under closely controlled conditions by personnel of the Metals and Alloys Section, Physical Metallurgy Branch, Bureau of Mines, College Perk, Md. This program was cosponsored by the Naval Bureau of Ordnance. Bureau of Mines interest lay in correlating the processing procedures with the mechanical properties of the finished plate.Considerable data have been published recently on constitution diagrams and properties of titanium-manganese alloys in genera1. 3/ 4/5/6/ However, little if any correlation between processing schedules and end results has been published, particularly with respect to the present commercial production of the proprietary titanium manganese alloys . Several factors in the production of titanium and titanium alloys have a pronounced influence on the physical and mechanical properties of the finished product: (1) The degree and nature of impurities in the base materials, ( 2) the amount of impurities introduced during the melting cycle and their distribution, (3) the homogeneity of the alloy, (4) forging, (5) rolling, and ( 6) final heat-treating cycles. All of these item£ are important from a metallurgical standpoint in producing the desired end properties in the metal."

Mar 1, 1955

By Guenter F. Lehmann

This report summarizes the results of the development and testing of a prototype monorail suspended bridge conveyor (MBC) system as a method of continuous haulage In underground mining applications. Included are the results of full scale, surface and underground testing of the complete MBC system. Conclusions drawn from these results, together with recommended modifications, supports the viability of the MBC system.

Jan 1, 1988

By E. A. Hewitt

This paper describing the mining practices at the Park Utah mine in the Park City district is one of a series being prepared by the United States Bureau of Mines on mining practices, methods, and costs in the various mining districts of the United States. The Park Utah mine is situated at Keetly, Utah, about 5 miles east of Park City. The Park City district lies on the eastern slope of the Wasatch Mountains, 25 miles southeast of Salt Lake City. The district embraces a tract located between the crest of the main range on the west and the mountain meadows along the eastern foothills. The elevation of the Union Pacific Railroad station at Park City is 7,000 feet above sea level. The town and mines are served by two railroads; one 28 miles long is a branch of the Union Pacific Railroad and connects with the main line at Echo Junction, east of Ogden; the other is 35 miles long and joins the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad at Salt Lake City. The district and mines are also accessible by excellent automobile roads from Salt Lake City and surrounding points (fig. 1).

Jan 1, 1930

By Eric L. Trist

The objective of this contract was to review the results of the Rushton Mining experiment in work organization and design, to explore the extension of knowledge gained from Rushton to other underground coal mines, and to conduct a search for a potential mine site for a demonstration project. The primary focus of the contract was on a search process to provide the research team with the opportunity to evaluate the different potential experimental sites, in order to select one or more with the highest potential for success. This search process also provides the various levels of union and company officials the opportunity to fully understand the context of the research before making a decision on whether to participate. While the search project failed in its attempt to locate a specific mine site, the research team believes that this is not a rejection of the actual project but rather extreme caution because of the uncertainty within the UMWA.

Jan 1, 1978

By J. A. Eisele

The Bureau of Mines is investigating the recovery of alumina from domestic nonbauxitic resources, including anorthosite. The United States has large reserves of anorthosite, but its aluminum content is less than 50 pct soluble in acid, unless a source of fluoride is added to the acid. A flowsheet that includes leaching with HCl and fluoride followed by crystallization of AlC13.6H20 from the pregnant liquor by HCl gas injection was designed. Approximately 90 pct of the aluminum values were recovered from the anorthosite when a ratio of 0.14 mole of fluorine per mole of aluminum was used. Sodium chloride is cocrystallized with the A1C13.6H20 but is removed by water washing of the Al203 product. A material balance is given based on results of laboratory studies of the unit operations.

Jan 1, 1983