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By E. M. Frost

"Helium has great value to the oil and as industry as a tracer gas, according to tests just completed in the Elk Hills Field, Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1, Kearn County, California. When used as .a tracer gas, small percentages of helium are mixed with natural gas pumped into a reservoir for conservation, repressuring, or cycling purposes. Because minute quantities of helium added to natural gases can be detected by analytical methods and accurately determined, the variations of the helium content of gas withdrawn from various parts of a field when helium has been added to the injected gas give interesting and long-sought data on the movement of injected gas through reservoirs.The Bureau of Mines engineers began their studies of the use of helium as a tracer material in gas-injection operations in the Elk Hills, California, oil field, Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1, in response to a request by the Navy Department for assistance in connection with an expanded oil-production program instituted in that field. This report discusses the Bureau's work on the problem of determining the direction and extent of migration of injected gas in the Elk Hills reservoir by the use of helium as a tracer gas,The Bureau appreciates the cooperation and assistance of Commodore W. G. Greenman, U.S.N., director, and Commander R. Walling, U.S.N.R., Assistant director, Naval Petroleum .and Oil Shale Reserves, Washington, D. C., Captain H. P. Stolz, U.S.N.R., commanding officer, and Commander F. G. Taves, U.S.N.R.., of the Navy's Elk Hills staff. The Bureau also appreciates the cooperation and assistance given by V. O. Wankowski, F. C. Tratt, Marray Putnam, Dana Champion, and other personnel of the Standard Oil Co., of California, operators of the Elk Hills field.R. A, Cattell, chief, and C. C. Anderson, assistant chief, Petroleum and Natural Gas Division; C. W. Seibel, supervising engineer, Bureau of Mines Helium Plants; and H. H. Hinson, petroleum engineer - all of the Bureau's staff - furnished valuable advice and assistance during the course of the work. H. C. Miller and G. B. Shea of the Bureau's San Francisco Office contributed valuable liaison work. The writer wishes to express appreciation to all these people for their cooperation and assistance."

Jun 1, 1946

By A. A. Cochran

The objective of the research was to determine the final distribution of cerium additions to steel, their effect on sulfide inclusions, and the usefulness of radiotracer methods in investigating steel problems. Fifty-gram heats of steel were prepared that contained either cerium 141 and nonradioactive sulfur, or sulfur 35 and nonradioactive cerium. These steels were studied by autoradiography, measurements of their surface radioactivities, optical microscopy, and chemical analysis. Samples of the crucibles were analyzed quantitatively for cerium or sulfur by radioactivity counting methods. The addition of cerium to steel melts reduced the size and number of iron sulfide inclusions in the resulting steel. A significant fraction of the sulfur and most of the cerium penetrated into the MgO crucible during the melting operation, The cerium inclusions in steel were identified as cerium sulfide. Radiotracer methods were found to be versatile and highly sensitive.

Jan 1, 1963

By Fred D. Wright

This paper describes research at the Bureau of Mines experimental oil-shale mine at Rifle, Colo., to improve blasting techniques and reduce breaking costs. Many of the conclusions are applicable to any mining operation. Experiments Were conducted on many phases of blasting. The effectiveness of various grades of explosives was compared, and several different drill-hole patterns were tried in heading rounds. An experiment was conducted to determine the maximum effective burden for various diameter blast holes. High-speed motion-picture studies were made of blasts, and the time for initial movement of rock after detonation of the explosive was measured. Experiments with millisecond-delay detonators in heading rounds proved that, when used properly, these detonators result in improved fragmentation, economical use of explosive, and compact, easily loaded muck piles.

Jan 1, 1953

By Robert C. Hickman, Xavier B. Starnes

"The general location of the Kentucky, Fluorspar District and the Moore Hill fault area are shown in figure 1. An engineer3/ the Bureau of Mines visited the district in July 1942 and reported on the Moore Hill fault system. Subsequently the Bureau explored the Summers, Pepperbox, McCune, Eagle-Watson, Henry Watson, Davenport, Felix Tyner, and Eagle-Wring prop¬erties by core drilling. These properties and the principal faults are shown on figures 2 and 3.Collaboration of the Federal Geological Survey4/ was of great benefit, particularly in mapping the properties, determining the stratigraphy, and furnishing information on that and other geologic factors.Fluorite was noted as early as 1818 near Shawneetown in southern Illinois.5/ In 1835 an attempt was made to work deposit in Crittenden County, Kentucky, but interest centered chiefly upon the galena found with the fluorite. The first shipments of fluorspar from Kentucky wore made in 1373 from the Yandell mine of Crittendon County.6/ It is not known when the first work on the Moore Hill fault was done, but it seems probable that the Cullen-Eagle and Nancy Hanks were being ,worked in 1900. Gravel spar was found on the surface at the Two Brothers mine in 1904,7/ and the main shaft was started in 1914; work also began at .the Davenport in 1914, and in 1917 the Eagle-Watson was in production. A shaft was gunk on the Pepperbox in 1918, and in 1922 fluorspar was found and work was started on the Summers property. In 1924 work began at the McCune, Felix Tyner, Eagle-Wring, and probably the Hicks properties.No Good approximate record of production from each property on the Moore Hill fault system is obtainable, but an estimate based upon all data available is as follows:"

Sep 1, 1946

By W. E. Robinson

Oil-shale kerogen was processed into oil and oil products before the first oil well was completed by Drake in 1859. However, because of economic and other advantages, natural petroleum has been the principal source of liquid fuels and lubricants since 1859 and is a convenient root of many [organic] chemicals in common use today. In recent years the difference has narrowed between the cost of producing liquid fuels from well petroleum and other sources. This narrowing of cost difference has resulted both from the increased cost of finding new sources of petroleum in the United States and the experimental demonstration of lowered costs for synthetic liquid fuels by the Federal Bureau of Mines and by industry. Available petroleum resources of this country are being reduced and eventually may be inadequate to meet the demand. Alternate means of assuring an adequate supply of liquid fuels for this country include the development of processes for utilizing other carbonaceous materials such as oil shale and coal.

Jan 1, 1960

By Earl L. Hastings

Although the principal market for diatomite in the United States is in the East,4 production of the material is presently restricted to the West, because the deposits are larger, mining costs are cheaper, and the quality of product is better than that obtained from other domestic deposits. However, Tallahatta diatomite, occurring in Choctaw and Clarke Counties, Ala., has a freight rate advantage, which should encourage competition for those market that are now being supplied with the purer diatomites from the western deposits. For this reason, diatomite occurrences in the Tallahatta formation were examined by the Bureau of Mines and physical properties of samples from the deposit were determined to obtain additional data for use by any potential producer who wished to evaluate the material for its commercial possibilities. In 1894 K. M. Cunningham5 found that the buhrstone formation (now known as the Tallahatta formation) contained "siliceous shells of marine diatoms, radiolaria and foraminifera, thus being rather of the nature of tripoli or diatomaceous earth than of a true clay." Cooke6 and Semmes7 also reported the Tallahatta formation to be composed principally of diatomaceous earth with accompanying beds of sand, clay, and sandstone.

Jan 1, 1963

By A. J. Martin

The Tri-State, or Joplin, zinc and lead mining district in south- western Missouri and adjoining, parts of Kansas and Oklahoma is one of the great mining districts of the world. It is in flat-lying or gently rolling agricultural country near industrial centers and coal, oil, and gas fields. The nearly horizontally, lying bedded rocks in which the ore bodies are found were originally limestone but are now largely chert containing minor percent- ages of dolomite and other minerals. The ore occurs in nearly vertical fis- sure zones, large and small, and in blanket (sheet-ground) deposits. The mining depth ranges from surface diggings to $50 feet. The average tenor of the ore mined, in recent years is much lower than that of ore produced in other large zinc and lead districts of the United States. Mining and mill- ing costs are low because of the shallowness of mining, amenability of ores to concentration, efficiency resulting from long experience of management and labor, and other factors. The operators comprise many small and medium-size producing companies and partnerships, as well as individuals and a few larger producers. About 7,000 men are employed in the mines and mills during normal industrial activity. The concentrates produced are sold f.o.b. the mill bins to local representatives of smelting companies at prices quoted on the Joplin market. The productive life of the district began with the discovery of lead near Joplin in 1848, but output was not large until after mining for zinc began near Granby in 1871. In most of the intervening years through 1945 the district produced more zinc than any other field, and it generally ranked third or fourth in the United States in lead production. Figures compiled from sources given later in this paper show a total output for the district from the beginning through 1945 of 20,755,020 tons of zinc concentrates and 3,334,057 tons of lead concentrates valued altogether at $1,110,058,581 in the mill bins. The output, in terms of recoverable metals, was 10,609,408 tons of zinc and 2,529,121 tons of lead, valued in all, at the average yearly market prices of the metals, at $1,691,282,419. During the 39 years (1907-1945) for which complete figures are available, the annual output of the district fluctuated from 23 to 66 percent of the total United States mine output of zinc and from 5 to 18 percent of the total lead; the averages for the period were 40 percent for zinc and 11 percent for lead. peak yearly production was attained in 1926, with an output of 423,800 tons of recoverable zinc and 102;117 tons of lead. Since that yoar the production rate has trended downward, accentuated at first by the depression in the thirties and later ameliorated somewhat under the stimulus of heavy demand and higher metal prices during World War II; the output in 1945 was 139,274 tons of recovorablo zinc and 23,556 tons of load. The above figures show the groat contribution made by the Tri-State district in the past toward the country's supplies of primary zinc and lead, cspecially zinc. However, the district's production is expected to decline both in quantity and in proportion of total United States mine output unless important discoveries are made. Ore exposed in mine workings and extensive exploratory drilling done in recent years within and without the productive The

Nov 1, 1946

By Mary H. Brown

The heats of formation of oxalic acid and sodium, potassium oxalates, and lithium oxalates were related by solution calorimetry to the heat of formation of (COOH)2.2H20, a value believed to be reliable as reported in the literature. The following heats of formation were determined: (COOH)2(a), -198.1±0.1; (COOH)2(ß), -197.8±0.1; UAW,, -328.7±0.4; Na2C204 -316.2±0.1; K2C204, -321.9±0.2; and K2C204-H20, -393.5±0.2 kcal/mole. The heat of the crystalline transformation (COOH)2(a) ? (COOH)2(ß) was determined to be 0.30±0.02 kcal/mole at 298.15° K.

Jan 1, 1970

By Verne E. Hooker

This Bureau of Mines report summarizes the results of modifications in the borehole deformation gage design and subsequent changes in the overcoring techniques. Modifications in the borehole deformation gage have greatly improved the creep characteristics and enhanced the versatility of the gage. In situ field tests in competent rock near St. Cloud, Minn., provided sufficient data to compare the reliability between gages and new techniques in obtaining good engineering estimates of stresses. Near-surface horizontal stresses at the test sites are compressive and biaxial in nature.

Jan 1, 1974

By Nicholas Kyriazi

It is of interest to know how to obtain as high an absorption efficiency as possible from a CO2-absorption canister used in closed-circuit breathing apparatus. In this study the Bureau of Mines found that varying the bed depth and the cross-sectional area of a canister changes its absorption characteristics. In tests using four ,1 rectangular, variable-depth canisters with different cross-sectional areas, the Bureau found that, given a constant weight of the chemical absorbent, LiOH, and a constant COa input, the canisters with a greater cross-sectional area reached C02 levels of 0.5 volume-percent in the effluent gas sooner than did the canisters with a greater bed depth. However, resistance to flow through the canister increases with bed depth, and a trade-off is inevitable. It was anticipated that the efficiency of a canister would increase with increasing intergranular air space approaching the tidal volume of the breathing waveform and then level off at some point under 100 percent. This postulation was partially substantiated. Cylindrical and radial canisters were also tested and compared. It appears that shape is not as important a factor in absorption efficiency as bed depth, since neither canister differed significantly from the rectangular canisters with regard to absorption efficiency values.

Jan 1, 1980

By J. H. Nixon

A three phase program evaluated commercial proximity warning devices, developed and designed a microprocessor-based electrostatic field measurement instrument, and utilized this instrument to investigate the electro-static fields about power lines. The Phase I program consisted of test and evaluation of these commercially available proximity devices. The evaluation results were reported in the Phase I report entitlted "Evaluation of Proximity Warning Devices II dated 22 February 1980. The Phase II program resulted in the design and development of a microprocessor-based Distributed Sensor A.C. Electrometer which measures the electrostatic field present at 17 discrete locations along a crane boom. Operator control of the measurement system allows simultaneous electric field measurements from 17 probes, print out of the electric fields measured, and data archiving on magnetic tape for post measurement analysis. Under the Phase III program, electro-static fields around a crane boom were measured by the instrument at 17 high voltage power lines of various voltages and geometries. The electric field data was processed and plotted versus boom distance from the power line. Analysis of the electric field data indicate that the distances at which a single sensor alarm will activate, vary by a factory of 3 to 1. This is due primarily to variations in boom orientation. The results also indicate that in the case of multiple power lines, a single electrostatic field sensor cannot reliably be used to determine the distance from a power line.

Jan 1, 1982

By Frank L. Hess

In the first cart of that little space of time that we have designated as the nineteenth century, chemistry had reached a wonderful stride. Viewed from the present heights attained by the efforts of innumerable chemists with perfected apparatus, mire reagents, air under pressure, water, gas, and electricity conducted to the desk, and. numberless other helps, it seems marvelous that chemists of that day obtained such results. In 1820, about half of the elements had. been discovered; of these discoveries, Swedes had made 15 or more, about once-third of the elements then known and nearly half of those discovered after 1700.

Jan 1, 1939

By Margaret R. Egan

A study of the combustion emission products of rigid ventilation ducting was completed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The ducting was composed of fiberglass-reinforced polyester resin. Four properties of the ducting were evaluated: (1) propensity to ignite, (2) smoke characteristics, (3) gas emissions, and (4) heat release. Particle sizes, obscuration, optical densities, and production constants for gas and smoke were also calculated. These results provide comprehensive data about the emission products, detectability, and relative hazards of fiberglass-reinforced plastic ducting and other mine combustibles under realistic fire conditions.

Jan 1, 1990

By David E. Van Dillen

The computer program described in this user's guide provides for the static, three-dimensional, linear and nonlinear analysis of structural and geological systems by the finite element method. The guide describes the capabilities and general features of the program and shows how input is prepared. A number of recent advances in finite element theory and computer technology are incorporated in the program. Nonlinear material properties are provided for, including isotropic, anisotropic, and time-dependent material properties, gravity loading, simulation of a sequence of excavation or construction, and a slip or joint element. The finite elements include beam, rod, axisymmetric and plane quadrilateral, hexahedron, thick shell, axisymmetric and plane joint, and a three-dimensional joint. The program also has an automatic mesh generator to minimize user input preparation for continuum finite element meshes.

Jan 1, 1981

By H. Kenworthy

The purpose of the study described in this publication is to develop methods for recovering simple master alloys or single metal components from discarded and scrapped S-816 alloy, The Bureau of Mines started this investigation late in 1955 after the need became apparent for a method of reclaiming high-temperature alloys from an ever-increasing accumulation of rejected and wornout jet engine turbine buckets. Laboratory studies showed the following: (1) Pyrometallurgical separations are not selective enough, (2) several methods can be used for effective chemical dissolution of the major constituents of the alloy, (3) a master alloy or complex salts of cobalt and nickel can be separated, (4) chromium, contaminated by several other metals, may be segregated, and (5) more time and effort need to be expended in separating the minor constituents and improving the purity of the major metals removed. Difficult and incomplete chemical separations were attributed to the complexity of alloy composition, as were the long tedious chemical analyses o' products. For determination of several of the metallic components, standard methods of separation and routine analytical procedures had to be considerably modified to achieve satisfactory results. The overall technical problems involved in separating S-816 components do not appear to be insurmountable; however, refinement of several of the methods used in this investigation is desirable.

Jan 1, 1961

By Francis Church Lincoln, Paul Zinner

"Attention of the Bureau of Mines was first directed to the Gray farm area by the results of several exploratory churn-drill holes completed by the New Jersey Zinc Co., and later by Roland J. Teske and by Judge H. L. Heer.When the Bureau of Mines initiated its investigation of the area, all drilling on the Gray farm had been discontinued, and no mining had resulted from the exploratory work. However, in the opinion of the Illinois Geological Survey, the Federal Geological Survey, and the Federal Bureau of Mines, this drilling,with the preliminary geological studies, was considered sufficient evidence to justify continued exploration to the southeast along a projection of the trend of mineralization developed in the mines to the northwest, or the so-called Black Jack Trough.This report describes the work done and presents the data obtained during the period of Bureau of Mines exploratory work.In its program of exploration of mineral deposits, the Bureau of Mines has as its Primary objective the more effective utilization of our mineral resources to the end that they make the greatest possible contribution to national security and economy. It is the policy of the Bureau to publish the facts developed by each exploratory project as soon as practicable after its conclusion. The Mining Branch, Lowell B. Moon, chief, conducts preliminary examinations, performs the actual exploratory work, and prepares the final report. The Metallurgical Branch, R. G. Knickerbocker, chief, analyzes samples and performs beneficiation tests. Both these branches are under the supervision or Dr. R. S. Dean, assistant director.Special acknowledgment is due Paul Herbert, geologist, Illinois Geological Survey, for his studies of cores, which greatly influenced the planning and progress of the exploratory work. Acknowledgment is also made to A. F. Agnew and A. V. Heyl, geologists, Federal Geological Survey, for their invaluable aid; to 0. W. Terry, F. C. Lincoln, M. H. Berliner, A. M. Cummings, project engineers; and to E. P. Barrett, district engineer, Minneapolis, and E. D. Gardner, regional engineer, Rolla, Mo., for supervising the program.The Gray ore body is on the Gray farm 5 miles south of Galena in Jo Daviess County, northwestern Illinois. The location with respect to adjoining properties is shown on figure 1. Galena is a city of 4,000 population on the banks of the Galena River, a stream that was formerly navigable by Mississippi River steamers but has now shrunk to the dimensions of a small creek. A gravel road leads from the city to the Gray farm and onward to the Bautsch and Boevers farms to the south of it."

Sep 1, 1946

By Sathit Tandanand

This report presents a Bureau of Mines study on the time-dependent behavior of coal measure rocks for future implementation in stability analysis and safety evaluation of in-mine rock structures. This initial study focused on moisture adsorption rate and strength degradation of shales in Pennsylvanian coal-bearing strata in the Illinois Basin. A reaction of clay minerals in Illinois shales with atmospheric water vapor was hypothesized as the adsorption and strength degradation mechanism. Part of energy exchange between shales and the environment was attributed to a free energy controlled by pore pressure of the rock and partial pressure in the environment. The relationships between adsorption versus time and strength degradation versus moisture content were derived and correlated with the experimental data. Partial saturation at various levels of relative humidity occurs within approximately 2 weeks at room temperature. The strength of shales tested decreases linearly with increasing moisture content. When the moisture exceeds 7 pct of the dry weight, these Illinois shales become unstable. To this end, the moisture content is a good predictor of rock strength for shales.

Jan 1, 1987

By C. C. Hustwit

The U.S. Bureau of Mines formulated a new mathematical model to characterize iron oxidation. The new model is intended to replace the currently used model, recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), for most acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment applications. The new model was evaluated in a series of five synthetic AMD treatment tests. The initial ferrous iron concentrations ranged from 800 to 2,400 mg/L. In these tests, the Bureau model underpredicted the measured ferrous iron oxidation rates by a range of 3.24 to 8.03 pct. This was considered to be in close agreement after consideration of experimental error. The model proposed by the EPA was also evaluated using the same test data. The EPA model underpredicted the oxidation rates by a range of 77 to 100 pct in four tests and overpredicted by 19 pct in one test. The model formulated by the Bureau expresses that the rate of iron oxidation is a function of a treatment system's oxygen transfer efficiency and is independent of ferrous iron concentration when treated to near-neutral pH's. A new test method for evaluating oxygen transfer in flow-through reactors is also described.

Jan 1, 2010

By S. H. Lorain

This paper is one of a series on mining methods and costs being published by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. The operations of the Quartz Hill Mining Co., near Dewey, Mont., afford an interesting example of the cost of mining small bodies of direct shipping ore; they also illustrate the effect of the unavoidable periods of unusually high exploration and development costs in this type of mining upon the cost per ton of producing ore. The importance of skilled geological guidance and the necessity of avoiding unnecessary overhead and capital expense at small mines are shown. Operating conditions at Quartz Hill are typical of those in many other mining districts of southwestern Montana. It is believed that the costs presented here may be of value in the preliminary estimation of costs to be expected by conservative operators under similar conditions elsewhere. The information contained in this paper was obtained during a visit to the Quartz Hill mine in August 1936.

Jan 1, 1937

By R. G. Travis

1. Reserve estimates have been made for eight coal beds in Monongalia County, W. Va., but only the Pittsburgh, Sewickley, and Upper Freeport beds are important at this time. The Pittsburgh, Sewickley, Waynesburg, and Upper Freeport beds contain the largest recoverable reserves. 2. Known measured and indicated reserves in all beds, based on a minimum thickness of 14 inches and 1,800 short tons per acre-foot of coal in place, are estimated at 3,526 million tons as of January 1, 1954. Of this total, 3,294 mil-lion tons is in beds 28 inches and more thick. Areas in each bed except the Pittsburgh were omitted from the estimate because available data relative to the bed characteristics are too meager for making an estimate that conforms with the definitions of measured and indicated coal adopted for this study. Should future drilling or development prove reserves in these areas, such reserves should be added to the total estimated reserves.

Jan 1, 1956