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By Joseph A. Conway

This paper is one of a series dealing with the mining and crushing methods and costs of the nonmetallic industries, prepared under the sponsorship of and in cooperation with the U. S. Bureau of Mines,. The quarrying methods described in this paper are those used at the Monocacy trap rock quarry which annually produces from 450,000 to 500,000 tons of crushed stone. This property is located 3 miles east of Birdsboro at Monacacy, Pa., and is one of the three quarries operated by the John T. Dyer Quarry Co. Throughout the paper an effort is made to explain the various methods used and the cost of operation.

Jan 1, 1931

By J. Wade Watkins

One potential peaceful application of nuclear explosives is stimulating the production of liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons from essentially nonproductive deposits of petroleum, natural gas, oil shale, and tar sands. Within the United States the appreciable difference between producible proved reserves and ultimate reserves and resources of hydrocarbon deposits is of such magnitude that much petroleum, natural gas, shale oil, and bitumen will not be produced unless significant technological progress is made in production techniques. The shattering effect of contained nuclear explosives and, to a lesser extent, the heat produced, have been considered as stimulative forces when the thickness, depth, and nature of such deposits permit considering the use of nuclear devices. Mechanical production problems would be less in an oil or gas reservoir than in an oil-shale or tar-sands deposit. Also, tar-sands resources in the United States may not be adequate to warrant serious consideration of applying nuclear-explosives stimulation. Gas reservoirs should present the least-radioactive-contamination problem. The technical feasibility of using nuclear explosives cannot be evaluated fully at present. Additional information is needed on the effects of pressure, heat, and radioactivity on the solids and fluids of hydrocarbon deposits, the nature and extent of induced fractures in different rock media, and the possibility of isolating and confining or removing radioactive contaminants. Final technical feasibility can only be determined by a field test. If technical feasibility is established, economic feasibility will depend upon the comparative cost of producing hydrocarbons by nuclear explosives and by conventional means. It is probable that an economic comparison would favor nuclear stimulation only where devices of relatively high yield could be used practicably and safely.

Jan 1, 1964

By A. M. Cummings

Each mining district presents different problems as to the methods of ore extraction cad underground support, which are dependent upon the type of the ore deposit and the character of the inclosing rock. Mining costs, however, depend largely aeon the efficiency with which the methods employed underground are [applie] as well as upon the selection of the method best adapted to the physical conditions. The purpose of this paper is to present to the operator in other districts a detailed description of ho mining method used ins results obtained in tie exploitation of the bedded magnetite deposits of the Mineville district. The town of Mineville is situated in the Adirondacks, five miles west of Port Henry on Lake Champlain.

Jan 1, 1928

By L. C. IlsLey

"The maintenance of permissible equipment which is tested and inspected at the Pittsburgh Experiment Station of the United States Bureau of Mines is dependent to a surprisng degree upon the voltage at which the equipment is operated. The difficulty of maintaining 500-volt equipment is frequently brought to the bureau's attention, and it is quite possible that if the bureau had appreciated at the beginning the full hazard involved, it would never have undertaken the approval of equipment operating at voltages greater than 250 volts.In this connection, the following statement from State mine inspection departments and other sources are of interest as showing the general feeling in safety organizations with respect to voltages higher than 250. These statements, although obtained as a result of a questionnaire sent cut several years ago, still apply very well to present conditions.A. I have not had time to consider seriously the proposed change from every angle, but looking at it from a standpoint of hazard, feel that the danger would be greatly increased. I have always occupied the position that underground voltage on portable equipment should never exceed 250 volts.High voltage of course would mean smaller transmission lines, which would be more economical and no doubt would require in several instances smaller equipment; notwithstanding, if this statement is true, the writer is still favorable to low voltage on underground portable equipment.B. I believe 500 volts should be the limit on the best equipment ender the best conditions and that the U. S. Bureau of Mines should do all in its power to limit the voltage to 500 volts on permissible equipment, as any increase in voltage means increased hazard.C. I will refer you to a section of our mining law, entitled ""An Act to Regulate the Tine of Electricity in the Mines of the State of ----"" which reads in part, as follows: Trolley wires, or other exposed electrical wires, shall not carry a voltage above 275 volts.You may readily see by this that we are not permitted to operate mining machines under ground in -----, with more than 275 volts at the terminals, except that we are permitted to install transforming stations throughout the mines, after complying with certain regulations at the mine.However, as we have had to date, within the calendar year of 1925, six men electrocuted in the mines of the State, using a voltage of 275 volts, I am of the opinion that if this voltage was increased, the hazard would also be increased in proportion.D. I do not care to make a statement for publication: however, I am referring you to our mining laws. On page 27 and 28 you will find what the laws of -----¬require relative to the installation of electricity in the mines.""Hereafter where electricity is installed no higher than two hundred seventy-five (275) volts shall be used underground, except for transmission, or for application to transformers or other apparata, where the high-voltage circuit is stationary. High-voltage motors, and transformers, shall be installed in suitable chambers, built of fire-proof construction, and well ventilated, and shall not be placed on intake, or between intake and return air courses. All high-voltage lines lines and apparata must be clearly marked, to indicate their danger. Main and distribution switchboards for high voltage shall be made of insulating and incombustible material, such as marble or slate, and to be free of all metallic veins, or of material equivalent thereto. Same shall be installed in a dry place. All switches or other instruments used in connection with high voltage shall be installed on suitable switchboards, with at least a three-foot passageway in front and rear properly floored, and kept looked by a door at each end that can be opened from the inside without a key. With higher than medium voltage, there shall not be any live metal work on the front of switchboard, and the entry circuit must be protected by an oil breaker s"

Apr 1, 1932

By Robert A. Speirer, Richard G. Burdick

Methods of detecting geologic faults and other linear features by means of processed LANDSAT satellite images have gained prominence during the past several years . There have been numerous programs written to pick these " lineaments , " but they have been almost universally tailored to large computers . This Bureau of Mines report describes a detection method developed for use with a minicomputer . The method comprises a suite of programs that scans an image for all " potential " lineaments . From this partially analyzed data , the final lineaments are picked by another routine . The method was field tested in an area of south- central Wyoming , and results indicated good agreement between computer- picked lineaments and ground features . Most of the known geologic faults in the area were picked by the method . Such features as roads and trails were also picked but were easily distinguished from faults during field inspection . The method is relatively new but promises to be a viable reconnaissance technique for the mining industry in geologic structural analysis .

Jan 1, 1965

Case studies from four western states are used to illustrate the impact of the environmental compliance process on the mining industry. The case studies were not chosen as a statistically significant sample of all mining operations in the western United States but were chosen as representative of operations on both public and private lands and in locations that exhibited varying degrees of involvement by governmental units, non-governmental organizations and the general public. Basically, each case study was chosen because some aspect of their environmental compliance process helped to illustrate an interesting point in the regulatory process. The criteria used to select the case studies were: mines located in different jurisdictional areas, mines located in varying geological areas~ mines located in areas having different historical relationships with mining: and operations that are in production as well as those seeking an operating permit. The variety of such projects should provide the necessary foundation to evaluate the impacts of the environmental compliance process in each location.

Jan 1, 1994

By J. K. Whyatt

The Bureau of Mines, under a cooperative agreement with Callahan Mining Corp., measured rock displacement at the 4,7S0-ft level of the 5,100-ft-deep rectangular, timbered Caladay Shaft in northern Idaho. Displacements were measured with multiple-position borehole exten-someters (MPBX) installed 4 ft above the face and timber extensometers (TE) installed with the timber sets. This report presents the displacement data along with preliminary, qualitative observations of rock behavior. The measured displacements showed an instantaneous response to shaft sinking and significant time dependency. The relative magnitudes of displacement measured at the shaft walls were heavily influenced by local geologic structure and distance from the shaft bottom.

Jan 1, 1987

By F. C. Houghten, R. R. Sayers, C. P. Yalaglou

"Introduction.Atmospheric conditions relative to high temperature and humidity are of great importance in mining, as well as in such allied fields as railroad and vehicular tunnels. An extended investigation into the effect of these factors on men has been in progress for some time, both in the field under actual working conditions, and at the Pittsburgh experiment station of the bureau in cooperation with the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers and the U. S. Public Health Service.For several years one of the writers (Dr. Sayers) and L. Harrington, supervising mining engineer of the bureau, have been studying the effects of hot humid atmosphere in metal mines on the comfort and efficiency of the workers. Some of the reactions experienced in still and in moving saturated mine air at temperatures of 90 to 100°F., with men at rest are presented in a recent paper.****The present paper is based on experiments made under carefully controlled conditions to determine the relative feeling of warmth experienced by men in atmospheres of various degrees of temperature and humidity. The work was conducted by the research laboratory of the American society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, at the Pittsburgh experiment station of the Bureau of Mines, in special physchrometric chambers built for this purpose. It was carried on under the direction of F. Paul Anderson, director of the laboratory, Dr. R. R. Sayers and A. C. Fieldner of the Bureau of Mines. The results given in this paper are for still air only. Investigations of the effects of moving air are being continued, and will be reported later."

Jan 1, 1924

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) has developed a test procedure to compare the initiating strength of detonators by using adjustable-sensitivity liquid explosives. Various tests of detonator strength are currently used by the industry, but many of them do not quantify the ability of detonators to initiate detonation reactions in an explosive charge. The USBM used mixtures of nitromethane and ethylene diamine, the sensitivity being "fine-tuned" by 2-nitropropane. Military standard J-2, commercial No.6, and commercial No.8 detonators were evaluated using three test configurations: (1) axially immersed in the test explosive, (2) tip just touching surface of the explosive, and (3) immersed transversely in the explosive. Markedly different results were obtained for these three configurations, indicating that the directional effects are important. This explains why different detonator strength tests do not correlate well with each other. Some tests, such as the sand bomb and underwater, measure the total energy out-put, while other tests, such as the plate dent, test measure the energy in the axial direction. The USBM's test data indicate the importance of conducting the experimentation in the manner in which the detonator is actually intended to function.

Jan 1, 2010

By A. D. Hahn

This report describes and gives the results of an examination by the Federal Bureau of Mines of ilmenite-bearing placer sand deposits in the 24-mile long valley of Otter Creek, Kiowa and Tillman Counties, Okla. Drilling and sampling was completed in three periods between October 1956 and September 1957. Mineralogic studies and mineral-dressing tests on recovery of ilmenite and other heavy minerals from composited samples of the sands were made in Bureau of Mines laboratories at Rolla, Mo., in 1957 and early 1958. Otter Creek rises in and drains the southwestern extremity of the Wichita Mountains, which are represented locally by knolls and ridges of gabbro and granite surrounded by plains floored with flat-lying Permian red beds. The valley fill consists of a basal sand-clay component, derived from weathering of the igneous rocks, and an overlying silt-clay alluvium. Ilmenite is present in significant quantity and recoverable grain size only in the basal sand-clay.

Jan 1, 1960

By A. E. Lindquist

This Bureau of Mines publication identifies areas having sufficient coal reserves to support synthetic natural gas (SNG) development and summarizes those areas having the highest potential. Capital requirements, mining and coal cost factors, water availability, and coal-quality data pertinent to SNG production are presented. Evaluation of individual coal reserve blocks was based upon coal and water requirements of the Bureau of Mines Synthane coal gasification process.

Jan 1, 1977

By Thomas F. Anderson

(Measurements of stable isotopic variations (sulfur, carbon, and oxygen), supplemented by chemical, mineralogical, and petrographic analyses have been used to investigate the processes responsible for : (1) the incorporation of sulfur in coal, and (2) the (development of permineralized peat zones ("coal balls"). Sulfur isotopic results indicate that there are two principal sources of sulfur in the Pennsylvanian coals from the Illinois Basin: (1) "primary" sulfur assimilated by plants (low-sulfur coals), and (2) "secondary" sulfur produced by reactions involving H2S that was produced by the anaerobic reduction of sulfate in seawater which permeated the peat during post-depositional marine transgressions (the dominant source of sulfur in high-sulfur coals). Sulfur isotopic compositions of low-sulfur coals in Several Tertiary basins of Wyoming are consistent with a plant sulfur source. However, the inverse correlation between content and isotopic composition of sulfur observed in coals from the Powder River Basin suggest some "secondary" additions to these low-sulfur coals. Seveeral Quaternary (freshwater pears which were submerged by sea-Level rises during deglaciation over the past 30 ka have sulfur contents and isotopic compositions similar to high-sulfur coals. Carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of calcareous coal balls from North America and Europe suggest that (1) the carbonate was derived from variable proportions of oxidized plant matter (typically predominant) and inorganic carbonate, and (2) the carbonate minerals were precipitated from fresh-to-brackish waters. Local geochemical and hydrological conditions were apparently more important than regional depositional environments in controlling the source of carbonate and the development of coal balls.

Jan 1, 1983

By Michael Rieber

The increase in f.o.b. mine prices of coal from $5/ton to over $18/ton in five years [1] has increased the significance of transportation costs. Coals produced in the vicinity of the consumer bear a much lower transport cost than those produced in the west. This differential may be used for flue gas desulfurization, other cleaning, or further processing of local coals. To the extent that western coals are cheaper to produce and have a lower sulfur content, they offset the locational disadvantage. To the extent that they have a lower heating value, the disadvantage is exercabated. Given the other conditions, an accurate analysis of transport costs will help suggest the location of coal mining and the moue of transport both transport costs and tariffs have risen. Together they have increased delivered coal prices, altered the balance between the use of coal and other fuels, helped to alter the location of mining activity, and put pressure on consumers to examine the cost effectiveness of alternative transport modes. Transportation options for long distance coal movements include rail, barge, pipeline, and EHV transmission lines. A summary of system parameters is shown in Table 2.1. Barge transport, pneumatic and slurry pipelines are discussed elsewhere in this report. Together with EHV, they have been the subject of previous studies [2,3,4]. Slurry pipelines have been shown to be especially useful where rails are not available [2] but the technical problems of dewatering, handling, and utilization of lines [5] remain unresolved. They are discussed in Section 3. Barge transportation depends on the location of the mine and consumer with respect to the waterway system. One drawback of barge shipment is interruptions due to winter, and low or high water conditions. Mine mouth power generation followed by EHV transmission of over 500 miles has been shown to be the most expensive means of delivering an equivalent amount of energy to consumers [2].

Jan 1, 1977

By Friedel. Michael J.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines investigated acoustic emission (AE) and the Kaiser effect in six types of rock: St. Cloud gray granodiorite, Barre granite, Dresser basalt, Salem limestone, Berea sandstone, and a volcanic tuff. AE signatures were used for interpreting the rock deformation stage and for indicating mechanisms of failure in uniaxial compression. The research demonstrated the advantages of using the volumetric stress-strain curve, as opposed to the more conventional uniaxial curve, for correlating AE response signatures with deformation stages and fracture processes in the rock. Standardized experimental procedures were used for the AE monitoring. The Kaiser effect was shown to be capable of determining prestress levels to within a few percentage points in uniaxial compression tests. Also, prestress memory was shown to be retained in the rock for periods of up to at least. 5 months, the maximum period of testing. The Kaiser effect AE technology holds promise for providing a comparatively inexpensive and less complex method for examihing stress history in rock. However, since the conftning stress has a pronounced influence on the Kaiser effect, it must be considered in developing technology for determining peak fteld stresses based on the Kaiser effect.

Jan 1, 1990

By B. Numerov

A numerical proceeding of corrections with respect to topography is worked out for places near the station and a graphical one for the remote parts of the terrain. The description is clear and very detailed. The numerical proceeding is very similar to that of the Eötvös and Schweydar methods which are in use already. In both methods the levelling is accomplished in certain circles and fixed azimuths around the station. While, in using the Eötvös method, the height differences are directly inserted into the final formulas with regard to the foot of the instrument and in case of accurate formulas derived by Schweydar the height differences are calculated with respect to the center of gravity of the attachment, Numerov introduces functions A and B, the heights, of the terrain and of the center of gravity, which are to be inserted into the formulas.

Jan 1, 1929

By H. W. Brandt

A field test was designed to inject a specially formulated two compound epoxy resin into the roof rock ahead of a working face to cement fractures and formation interfaces at the Westmoreland Coal Co., Winding Gulf Div., Eccles No. 5 Mine, Eccles, West Virginia. Five 30 foot long X 2 inch diameter, hold were drilled at an angle of 15° above the plane of roof line front the face of a working entry. The epoxy resin compounds were pumped through a proportioning unit and mixed in-line before being discharged into the drill hole under treatment it injection pressures up to a maximum of 450 psig. When the coal face was advanced an anomalous failure of the roof rock occurred in the treated section. Further testing was suspended until the cause of the failure could he determined. The polymers were tested, under confined conditions, in 2 inch pipe columns. Extreme temperature and pressure (up to 2400 psig) rises were recorded as they cured, It was concluded that this pressure source fractured the rock and caused the roof failure. The entire program was terminated after it was determined that the heat rise and resultant high pressures could not he controlled chemically or mechanically.

Jan 1, 1978

By W. L. Dare

This paper is one of a series being prepared by the Bureau of Mines on the methods and costs of mining uranium on the Colorado Plateau. The Continental No. l mine is at the south end of the Big Indian mining district, San Juan County, Utah. The mine is on a school section owned by the State of Utah and leased by Continental Uranium, Inc. A 70,000-ton uranium-vanadium ore deposit was discovered as a result of an exploratory drilling program completed in 1954.

Jan 1, 1957

By Paul W. Johnson

A computer program for calculating capital and operating costs from material and energy requirements and equipment costs for use in preparing cost estimates for metallurgical process evaluations has been written by the Bureau of Mines' College Park process evaluation group. The program permits rapid recalculation of processing costs when changes of data or equipment are desired, and produces tables of capital and operating costs suitable for publication. Equipment cost summary tables for each process section end supplemental information for input-data checking is included in the computer printout. The program is written in Fortran IV except for several subroutines which are written in machine assembly language for the IBM 7094.3 With a few modifications, the program can be used on other computers.

Jan 1, 1969

By Chas. F. Jackson

During the past 5 years the Bureau of Mines has published information circulars dealing with mining methods and costs at 78 ore mines; 7 circulars, each of which is devoted to a discussion of one of the principal mining, methods; and 23 circulars dealing with special phases of mining, such as ventilation, shaft sinking, tunnel driving, the cost of equipping and developing prospects and small mines, underground transportation, diamond drilling, and ground support. These circulars were written by many different authors, and in order that the method of presentation and the basis for compilation of data might be the same in all the papers the Bureau drafted an outline to be followed in their preparation. To clarify the data in these circulars, which are in the libraries of many engineers and mining companies, and the summarized data presented in this paper, that portion of the outline dealing with cost and labor-performance data is reproduced below.

Jan 1, 1934

By Leo A. Schrider

This report analyzes the successful low-pressure gas drive in the Keener sand of the Bonds Creek oilfield, Pleasants and Ritchie Counties, W. Va.) and predicts its future performance. Core analysis from two wells and electrical and radioactivity logs were used to evaluate the reservoir characteristics. Production records over a 37-year period indicate that over 240,000 barrels of oil have been produced from the Keener sand by low-pressure gas injection. Decline-curve analysis shows that 165,000 additional barrels should be recovered from 108 acres of productive sand by continuing this secondary-recovery method.

Jan 1, 1966