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By Richard J. Bielicki

This Bureau of Mines study estimates the number of major pieces of coal- mining equipment that will be required to produce 950 million tons of marketable coal in 1980 and 1.2 billion tons in 1985. The coal tonnages were projected in the intermediate coal supply scenario of Project Independence Blueprint (PIB). The equipment projections were determined by consideration of historical trends and by evaluation of information from equipment manufacturers and mining companies. The ability of the manufacturers to meet the projected equipment demands was also determined. It was concluded that equipment supply offers no presently discernible constraint to mining 1.2 billion tons of coal in 1985. A shortfall in projected production for the intervening years, however, is probable owing to anticipated shortages of draglines.

Jan 1, 1976

By John A. Johnson

The first report of investigations5/ in this series pertaining to the investigation of stemming at the Mount Weather testing adit dealt with dust produced from blasting. The present report discussed the effect of stemming on eases generated by blasting, describes the test procedure, and analyzes the results from, blasting 61 standard rounds. Following care the types of stemming that are being investigated: 1, No stemming. 2. Sand in 2 paper cartridges. Clay in 2 paper cartridges. Commercial hydrated lira in 2 paper cartridges. 5. Combustible blasting plugs. 6. Ceramic is blasting plugs with clay in 2 paper cartridges.

Jan 1, 1940

By Walford S. Wright, NORMAN EBBLEY

During the past decade (1937 to 1947), including the war years of heavy demand for metals, the United States realized about one-eighth of its antimony requirements from domestic production, chiefly in Alaska. In World War II, our foreign supply sources became endangered; and uncertainty in our Far Eastern supply made this nation focus on Alaska’s mineral resources with a Production Gear that centered in the Bureau of Mines experimental station at College (Alaska). The development work known as District or central deposits. The strategic mining districts included that of central Alaska was reorganized at Ketchikan Mining Districts. Mines were located here had produced considerable quantities since 1901; but methods for exploration had come from 1936 to spring 1942, some $4 million produced in gold alone. Statistics relating to available ores are those selected by type and exploitation periods with wide variety applied. During the summer of 1941, as part of an extensive Geological Survey program continuing through funds provided by U.S., geological surveys spent six weeks mapping an area approximately two square miles surrounding mines. The mines working both surface & underground work employed these men in mapping exercises.

Jan 1, 1948

By Kenneth Eilerts, Vincent Smith

"INTRODUCTION Knowledge of the Phase relations of fluids produced from combination wells 4/ at the pressures and temperatures characteristic of production from natural reservoirs is essential to efficient recovery and refining practice. An accurate sample of the fluid from such wells may be prepared by mixing (in the proportions of the measured gas:liquid ratio) gas and liquid taken from the separator conditions of steady flow; and physical properties of the sample, at significant pressures and temperatures, may be determined with suitable laboratory apparatus for use in the solution of engineering problems. The results of study of sample so obtained and of mixtures of gas and liquid from the separator combined in other proportions are presented in this report. Attention was given in the study to the relationship between the physical properties of what may be regarded as the constituent materials - the gas and liquid taken from the separator - and the properties of mixtures of these constituents. Data obtained for the complete range of mixture Proportions are expected to provide a reference scale for the study of other combination-well fluids produced at different liquid:gas ratios."

Apr 1, 1942

By J. F. Barkley

Smoke abatement is a subject of which fuel technology, although absolutely essential, is only a part. Its successful accomplishment starts and ends with human factors that must be given thorough consideration; between this "start" and "end" fuel technology is applied. Smoke abatement usually starts from the desire of some person or persons to be free from uncleanness caused by the stack of someone else and ends with the sincere desire of the operator of the fuel-burning equipment to maintain a clear stack. Although "smoke abatement been discussed for many years, it is only recently that the public has been mindful of such expressions as "air pollution" and "air hygiene." The subject has duel in common with that of supplying pure water but is more complicated. The public desires pure water, expects pure water, is willing to pay for pure water, and expects to continue to pay for it indefinitely; it is a development of civilization. It is doubtless correct to say, however, that people in general do not et realize the detriment of air pollution to their well-being or give the question enough serious consideration. This is illustrated by the fact that in city smoke abatement it is the mass of small householders that sins the most and is the hardest to handle. It is rather difficult to assemble a group of people in a room without the air becoming contaminated with smoke. Smoke abatement will lag with the lack of desire for pure air - probably the biggest human factor involved in its accomplishment.

Jan 1, 1939

By Vernon C. Davis

"SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSIn initial attempts to mine taconite by conventional open-pit methods, the material tended to break into tabular blocks that were too large to be handled by conventional shovel dippers and were unsatisfactory in an ordinary crusher feed. A great amount of secondary blasting was necessary, which added considerably to the cost of mining.The Bureau of Mines and others are engaged in studies designed to contribute to the solution of taconite-mining problems. These studies concern problems related to drilling techniques and patterns, types and methods of use of explosives, and other factors relative to effecting maximum fragmentation at minimum cost.This report is concerned with study of the application of shaped charges in drill holes, the effectiveness of shaped charges as compared to capped charges in secondary blasting, and the merits of different drilling patterns and methods of detonation of conventional-explosive charges.Fragmentation of taconite at or near the surface is controlled or strongly influenced by joint and bedding planes. Since all tests in this study were made in a jointed and bedded area, a definite conclusion as to the relative effect of a shaped charge in a drill hole, as compared to a conventional charge at greater depths and tighter ground, is precluded. However, application of shaped charges in primary blasting of taconite appears to be of no advantage.In secondary blasting of taconite, conventional, capped charges produced better breakage than shaped charges of the designs tested.Based on the results of conventional blasting practice in horizontal-, inclined-, and vertical-hole tests, no better fragmentation is obtained from blasting either horizontal or inclined holes, compared to vertical holes.Holes drilled in staggered parallel rows that intersect both series of joint planes at the greatest possible angle, give maximum breakage compared to rows parallel to one of the series of joint planes.Methods of detonation made little difference in breakage; but the millidelay caps produced the best conditions for moving the broken rocks."

Jun 1, 1953

By Oliver Bowles

A conviction is growing that depressions and other adverse conditions are not entirely unavoidable if a knowledge of past achievements and shortcomings is intelligently, applied in shaping the course of industry. Mineral producers have available a source of such knowledge concerning; their industry in the statistical records of the United States Bureau of Mines, and by scanning, this increasingly exact history can obtain information on which to found a more stable future. This paper contains a brief history, covering more than 50 years, of the activities of the nonmetallic mineral industries as a group, followed by short histories of each of the more important commodities in which are noted the circumstances that lave influenced their development.

Jan 1, 1933

By William W. Adams

Progress made by the quarrying and related industries of the United States during 1939 included increases in the number of men employed and the number of man-hours worked and reductions in the death and injury rates per million man-hours of exposure to risk. Forty-seven States reported quarries in operation; in each of 26 States the industry employed 1,000 or more men. Of these 26 States, 16 reported lower accident rates than in 1938. Among the operations of various types for which separate figures are published in this bulletin, the limestone, lime, and cement groups reported lower accident rates. During 1939, 79,449 men were employed in the quarrying industries. The period of operation of the plants averaged 236 clays per employee, with a total working time that equaled nearly 144 million man-hours. Accidents at the plants resulted in 48 deaths and 5,204 disabling injuries among the workers. Expressed as frequency rates, the accidents represented 0.33 fatality and 36.18 injuries for each million man-hours of work performed during the year. The major cause of fatal accidents inside the quarries was falls or slides of rock or overburden; nine deaths were reported from this cause. Four men were killed by explosives and four by falls of persons. Nonfatal injuries inside the quarries were clue chiefly to handling materials; about one-sixth of the total number at all operations in connection with quarries and related plants were in this class. Flying objects also caused numerous injuries, although only about one-half as many as did handling materials. Next in numerical importance were injuries from falls of persons. Then followed accidents caused by falls or slides of rock or overburden and accidents caused by machinery.

Jan 1, 1941

By Sidney Katell

This report, covering the period January 1967 through December 1967, is a continuation of a series that began with the publication of Information Circular 7516 in October 1949. It is the ninth in a series of reports prepared in cooperation with the American Association of Cost Engineers. The abstracted articles are concerned with all phases of cost engineering in the field of chemical and petroleum plants and related subjects. They are from the following sources: 1. American Association of Cost Engineers Bulletin. 2. Bureau of Mines Information Circulars. 3. Bureau of Mines Reports of Investigations. 4. Chemical Engineering. 5. Chemical Engineering Progress. 6. Chemical Week.

Jan 1, 1968

By Clifford B. Farris

The natural cementation strength of retorted oil shale is the focus of this investigation. The optimum retorting temperature and residence time to obtain natural cementation strength in retorted Green River oil shale from western Colorado were determined as follows: [Optimum Conditions for Natural Cementation Maximum Residence Obtained Retorting Time at Compressive Mode of Temperature Temperature Strength' Retorting °F °C hr psikg/cm-2 Direct 1,520 822 2.0 270 19.0 Indirect 1,530 832 2.9 325 22.8] 1 Scattered samples were tested at strengths as high as 463 psi (32.6 k /cm 2) (Run 8, indirect mode) and 406 psi (28.5 kg/cm2) (Run 48, direct mode), but these high strengths were not confirmed by nearby tests. Minus 0.5-inch (1.3-cm) Green River oil shale was heated in a differential retort under conditions simulating potential full-scale retorting processes. The variables investigated were retorting temperature, residence time, retorting mode, and shale grade. Samples of the retorted Green River oil shale were moistened to optimum plus 2% (25%) moisture, compacted to 95% Proctor density, sealed and cured at 100°F (38° C) for up to 40 days. Lower curing temperatures, which are likely in the field, would probably result in significantly slower development of cementation strength, and might lower the ultimate strength developed. However, these effects were not studied in this project. The cured samples were tested for compressive strength, and correlative equations were developed for the increase of compressive strength with curing time as a function of retorting temperatures and residence time. Petrographic analysis indicated that the cementing mechanisms may be the interlocking growth of acicular hydrated calcium aluminum sulfate crystals between the contacts of retorted shale fragments. Samples of the retorted shale were also tested for optimum Proctor density and moisture. Permeability and quality of the leachate of shale from typical runs were determined. The effect of use of retort rather than tap water on compressive strength and leachate after curing was determined. The retorted shale effectively filtered several mineral constituents from the retort water.

Jan 1, 1979

The Bibliographic Data Base is the result of a literature search con-ducted as one task of the technology assessment of current and advanced logging techniques, sponsored by the United States Bureau of Mines. After compilation, the bibliography was converted to an automated form for ease of utilization, and to allow for maintaining and updating the data base. The data base covers articles, symposia, books, patents, corporate and government reports, and other literature concerned with some aspect of borehole logging from January 1969 through December 1975. Periodic up-dating will be necessary to keep the data base contents in step with developments in the rapidly advancing field of application of borehole logging to mining. Many bibliographic indexes were scanned for entries relating to the subject of interest, and those entries which were included in our data base contain a reference to the bibliographic index in which they were listed (see Section 2.4.7). With the aid of these indexes, a vast number of publications, including foreign reports and publications, have been scanned for works relevant to borehole logging technology.

Jan 1, 1976

By H. W. Wainwright

.1. The purification pilot plant and the equipment, solution, and gas cycle used for removing hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide are described. 2. As sulfur recovery is necessary in any large Fischer-Tropsch plant, pilot-plant runs were made at 300 p.s.i.g. to study the efficiency of tri-ethanolamine solutions in removing selectively hydrogen sulfide from gases containing varying amounts of carbon dioxide. 3. Aqueous solutions of TEA of 20, 30; 35, and 50 percent were investi¬gated. Data indicate that 30 to 35 percent is the optimum concentration if both selectivity and economy are considered. Slightly better selectivity is obtained with the.20 percent solution, but steam consumption is greater owing to the higher solution rates. Results from our pilot plant runs indicate that a 50 percent solution not only produces an acid gas of lower hydrogen sulfide content but also requires high solution rates to effect hydrogen sulfide purification. 4. Data from 37 runs using TEA are presented in tabular form. In addition, the data are correlated and presented in three sets of curves. By using these curves, it is possible to calculate the compositions of the purified and acid gases for various raw gas mixtures. 5. In cooperation with the Southern Natural Gas Co., investigations were carried out at 300 p.s.i.g. on the simultaneous removal of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide, from gases using various concentrations of diethanolamine. 6. Data from 17 runs employing 20, 30, and 40 percent DEA are reported in both tabular and graphic form. 7. A comparison of the data from one DEA run made at 200 p.s.i.g. with those from the runs operating at 30O p.s.i.g. shows float the absorption capacity of the solution, and, hence, the steam requirements per gallon are about the sage for both pressures. .The only real advantage of the higher pressure is the additional volume of gas that can be treated. 8. The quantity of steam needed to reactivate fouled TEA and DEA solutions increased as the reactivator pressure was increased about 1,0 to 1.1 pounds of steam was required for each gallon of circulating solution when the reactivator was operated at 5 p.s.i.g. 9. A curve is included that shows the effect of the hydrogen sulfide con-centration in a lean 35 percent TEA solution on the hydrogen sulfide content of the purified gas and on steam consumption for reactivation. 10. Both TEA and DEA reduced the organic sulfur content of the raw synthesis gas considerably. Analyses of the lean amine solutions showed a gradual build up of sulfur compounds, indicating that the compounds formed by the amines and organic sulfur do not break down under the ordinary operating conditions of the reactivator. 11. Considerable operating difficulty was encountered in the pilot plant owing to foaming of the amine solutions. Laboratory experiments in which the effectiveness of certain antifoam agents was studied showed Alkaterge C to be most promising for the particular conditions studied.

Jan 1, 1952

1. Domestic Production and Use: In 1977, 12 companies operated 31 primary aluminum reduction plants, with 3 firms accounting for 65% of production capacity. Washington, Oregon, and Montana accounted for 31% of the total capacity; Gulf Coast States 23%, Northern States 26%, and other Southern States 20%. Based on estimated producer prices output of primary metal in 1977 Has valued at $4.6 billion. Aluminum consumption by 25,000 firms was centered 'in the East Central United States. Of aluminum consuming industries in 1977, building accounted for about 25%; packaging 22%; transportation 21%; electrical 11%; consumer durables 9%; and other uses, 12%.

Jan 1, 1978

By C. J. Johnson, C. J. Bise

"As the US coal industry moves into the next century, it is becoming more apparent that the effective application of new technology is the only way it can remain competitive in the energy marketplace. Examples of this emphasis are with us today in such diverse areas as face-ventilation and excavation-equipment applications. The focus of this new technology is directed toward improvements in health and safety, cost control, and productivity.Room-and-pillar mining accounts for approximately 68% of the nations underground coal production; this percentage is not expected to decrease markedly in the near future. As such, this paper analyzes the impacts of the changing technological climate on future room-mid-pillar operations by comparing a base-case section (current) to three scenarios incorporating new or emerging technology. A microcomputer-based comparative analysis will reflect the changes in section production and costs.IntroductionThe ultimate goal for any coal mining company is to effectively use its human and financial resources to maximize its profits through the extraction of its reserves. Although recent workforce reductions in the industry have resulted in a more efficient use of labor and increased productivity, there comes a point in time when further reductions in the numbers of workers in each operating section are impossible with existing equipment. For example, Farinelli and Bise (1987) found that labor cost constituted 62% - 73% of the cost per ton of coal at the mining section, with a minimum crew size. Thereafter, efforts to increase productivity must focus on more efficient mine plans and technology.The fact that an increase in productivity can be realized by reducing non-productive time (change-out and tram time) and converting it to productive time has been known and demonstrated for quite some time. What has not been demonstrated frequently is the quantification of the potential productivity increase of currently emerging technology or ""add-on"" equipment. It is one thing to be able to say that a piece of equipment will make an operation more productive, but it is another thing to be able to quantify the productivity increase that will justify the purchase of the new equipment. Not only is a financial benefit possible in room-and-pillar mining with an increase in productivity, but a decrease in the time necessary to develop a longwall panel can also occur.The purpose of this paper is an analyze the impacts of a changing technological climate on future room-and-pillar operations by comparing a base-case section (current) to several scenarios incorporating emerging technology. To do this, four cases will be developed. A base case, consisting of the typical manner in which continuous-miner sections are currently operating, is compared to three layouts incorporating: (1) flooded-bed scrubbers on radio remote-controlled continuous miners, (2)a continuous miner with side-mounted roofbolters, and (3) a continuous miner with side-mounted roofbolters used in conjunction with a continuous-haulage system."

Jan 1, 1989

By C. B. Manula

Bituminous coal mining in the United States is currently experiencing a period of rapid growth which began in the early 1960's. Future demands are conservatively predicted to rise to 700 million tons by 1980 and to anywhere between 1 to 3 billion tons by the turn of the century. This means a continuous expansion of coal production by a factor of at least two can be expected before the end of the century. Over the last few years, production from underground mining has decreased; yet it is about 50% of the total coal output. In the absence of any discovery of near surface coal deposits, and even after conceding that some deeper deposits can be surface mined with changes in technology it can be reasonably assumed that coal production from underground will continue to play an important part in solving the energy crisis.

Jan 1, 1975

By W. W. Adams

With greater production of coal per man-hour of work than ever before achieved, the coal-mining industry of the United States established a better safety record in 1941 than in any year since 1930, the earliest for which complete reports of nonfatal as well as fatal injuries were collected by the Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior. In only one year (1933) of the 12-year period 1930-41 was the fatal-accident rate better than in 1941, whereas the rate for nonfatal accidents was better in 1941 than in any previous year. Accident and employment reports received from mine operators, together with fatal-accident reports received monthly from State mining departments and inspectors, showed that 546,692 men were employed in and about the coal mines of the United States during the calendar year 1941. This number does not include office employees or coke-oven workers. The increase of 1.3,426 over the number of employees in 1940 was accompanied by a gain in man-hours of work performed at the mines and an increase in average number of hours worked per man during the year.

Jan 1, 1944

By W. D. Dietzman

This Bureau of Mines report presents a profitability analysis of producing crude oil by waterflooding. Included are the estimated costs of installation of water injection and producing equipment for waterfloods at 2,000 and 4,000 feet and the estimated annual operational expenses for each in west Texas. Using these cost estimates as a base for selecting a range of costs that are indicative of producing crude oil by waterflooding, a simulation technique was derived for determining the profitability under various conditions. Because of the large number of combinations of variables used in this study, a high-speed digital computer was utilized for the calculations. The variables include operational expenses, capitalized costs, price of the oil, annual production, and leasehold acquisition cost. The results obtained from the simulations are presented Fn the appendix. In addition, a nomographical approach was chosen for presentation of the profitability. Five nomographs are presented that can be used for fast estimation of the discounted cash flow (DCF) rate of return that might be expected from a prospective or active operation under various sets of assumed conditions.

Jan 1, 1974

Provide longwall operators with an alternative strategy for placement of gob gas ventholes to improve gas production.

Jan 1, 1995

To reduce equipment operator exposure to respirable dust in enclosed cabs by examining the effectiveness of retrofitting air pressurization and filtration systems on existing cabs.

Jan 1, 2001

By H. B. Hill

The Salt Flat field, formerly called the Joe Bruner field, is located northeast of the town of Luling in Caldwell County, Tex. This field, which is a fault structure, approximately parallels and is about 5 miles east of the Old Luling field. The proved area is approximately 1,280 acres, on which 332 producing wells (September, 1930) have been drilled. The majority of the wells are producing from the Edwards limestone at an average total depth of 2,700 feet. A few wells are producing from the Austin chalk or from other formations above the Edwards limestone. The Wilcox formation is exposed, and the fault trace in places is scarcely evident. The strike of the structure is approximately N. 20 to 45° The displacement of the fault is probably 200 to 500 feet. The discovery well was completed in the Austin chalk by the Lutex Oil Co. during April, 1928. In October, 1926, the Sun Oil Co. completed the discovery well in the Edwards pay. This well was an important discovery, as it indicated the potential oil possibilities of the Edwards limestone in echelon fault structures. The discovery led to the development of the third fault field in the Edwards limestone and opened up a large area for future prospecting.

Jan 1, 1931