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By R. J. Hundermark

Keywords: Anglo American, Anglo Platinum Ltd, Waterval, Mortimer, Polokwane, ACP, pyrometallurgy, platinum, PGMs Anglo Platinum Ltd is the largest primary platinum producer in the world and operates three smelters in South Africa: Waterval, Mortimer and Polokwane. The operational details of the smelters are covered in previous reviews, thus only unit operations that have been upgraded are discussed. The most significant of the upgrades include the installation of a second ACP converter at Waterval Smelter in 2006 and the anticipated upgrade of Mortimer Smelter to 38MW in 2011. Several advances have been made in the smelting operations to improve the furnace stability and longevity. Control of the chromium input to each of the smelters has substantially allowed continued operations at levels below the spinel saturation point in slag, which results in lowered matte and slag temperatures. Mogalakwena concentrate, arising from the Platreef ore, is used to dilute high chromium-containing concentrates. In addition, furnace controls have improved in terms of crucible temperature and condition monitoring, improved feeding control, management of alarms and trips and having the quality of instrumentation and operational rigour required to support this. Advances have been made on the ACP converter in terms of good converter matte quality, and increased intensity and efficiency of operation. Combined with improvements to both the conventional and tower sulfuric acid plants, the emissions from Waterval Smelter have been reduced substantially since the introduction of the ACP. This is in spite of increasing metal throughput. The Anglo Platinum Ltd smelting operations have made significant progress since 2006 and further advances are envisaged to further improve on safety, reduce costs, increase efficiencies and throughput, while reducing emissions.

Jan 1, 2011

By J. L. Deutsch

Block model estimates are commonly calculated by the well-established technique of kriging. The mathematics are well established, but implementation details require site-specific considerations. Checking and measuring the performance of the estimates is important to ensure the block model is suitable for its intended purpose. There are different criteria for long-term planning and short-term planning. The implementation of kriging should be checked with cross-validation and assessed for conditional bias and departure from theoretical optimality with the calculation of kriging efficiency. A new expression of kriging efficiency, which compares the kriging variance with the theoretically optimal kriging variance, is developed to aid in this assessment. The assessment tools presented here can be applied in a number of situations; however, ordinary kriging with a reasonably large search performs well in most cases.

Jan 1, 2014

By Mauri Kauppi, Pekka Niemelä

World HCFeCr production is 6.0 million tonnes. Correspondingly 1.1-1.6 t slag / t FeCr is produced depending on the raw material basis. Essentially all FeCr is produced in submerged arc furnaces, while the role of competitive technologies like DC is limited. In all furnaces fluxes are used to optimize the slag composition. Vital characteristics are smelting point, electric conductivity and viscosity. The main components of FeCr slag are SiO2, Al2O3 and MgO. Additionally it consists of Cr-, Fe-oxides and CaO. Granulated slag and/or classified slag products are produced depending on the production process. The slag products are mainly marketed in road and civil construction purposes but also in producing refractories. Normally crushed and screened slags are produced simultaneously when recovering alloy. The leachate of slag products is low and performance results are excellent. Slag products successfully replace natural sand and macadam. Generation of waste is essentially reduced. Producing and using slag products are described as BAT-technology and it is an essential environmental aspect. Outokumpu Tornio Works produces 320 000 t FeCr-slag/a. This paper deals with formation of slag in smelting process, its chemical composition, physical and structural characteristics, utilization and product specifications as well as environmental aspects. The slag products are standardized and CE marked. Additionally the role of slag in smelting and alloy recovery is reviewed in this paper.

Jan 1, 2007

By M. K. Sichone

Anglo Platinum?s Waterval smelting complex based in South Africa operates the Anglo Converting Process (ACP) that produces SO2 offgas. This SO2 offgas is treated in a double-contact, double-absorption acid plant allowing for conversion efficiencies higher than 99.90 %. The catalytic converter used in the acid plant to convert the SO2 to SO3 is a 4-bed reactor loaded with a combination of cesium-promoted and conventional vanadium pentoxide catalysts. In June 2008 there was a shutdown, in which one of the main activities was to screen the catalyst. Before this shutdown, the operator would control the converter pass temperatures manually, via the SCADA, especially during plant start-ups after which some of the automatic temperature controllers were used. After the shutdown, the control philosophy was revisited and all temperature controllers were put on auto mode during plant start up. Furthermore the set points of the pass inlet temperatures were reduced to maximize conversion in the first two passes. The result has been a reduction of SO2 emissions, from a daily average of 50 ? 70 ppm to as low as 20 ppm for similar sulphur dioxide and oxygen concentrations. Further work has been done to maintain high bed temperatures in the third and fourth passes at low SO2 strengths by splitting the gas stream between pass 1 and 2 thus increasing the SO2 content in the gas to pass 2. This increases the temperature of the gas exiting the second pass, which results in higher temperatures in passes 3 and 4. Comparison of the converter performance prior to and after the changes is made. The benefits of partially bypassing the first pass to increase the SO2 content in the gas to the second pass are shown. Conclusions and scope for further work have been drawn from the comparisons.

Jan 1, 2009

Anglo Platinum commenced commercial underground borehole radar (BHR) surveys during 2006 following a series of trial surveys using both the ?slimline? Geomole and Aardwolf systems. Current borehole radar systems comprise radio frequency transmitter ? receiver antennae operating at 30 -100MHz that measure the time taken for a transmitted pulse to traverse a rock volume and be received (Fig 1). The time taken can be converted to distance if the transmission speed of the pulse through the rock volume is known. The transmitted pulse may be reflected off a suitably orientated geological reflector (in reflection mode) or may be recorded in receivers located in other boreholes (cross-hole tomographic mode). In the Bushveld Complex lithologies, these radar systems have ranges of 30-50 metres in reflection mode depending on the electrical properties of local stratigraphic units. Both the Merensky Reef (MR) and the underlying UG2 have been shown to act as reflectors, which offer the opportunity of using BHR as an imaging or mapping tool. Reflection of the radar signal occurs wherever a strong contrast in dielectric constants occurs such as between norite and harzburgite or where chromitite stringers are present. [ ] Fig 1 Main elements of a borehole radar system Much experience has been gained in the practical application of BHR surveys in platinum mining. The value of a BHR survey is that it provides a continuous line of information to ?connect the dots? rather than a few discrete pierce points. BHR surveys can be used to mitigate risk in three crucial areas: ? Mine planning at the strategic as well as tactical level ? geotechnical evaluation of proposed shaft sites, detailed profiling or mapping of reef and disruptions of the reef such as faults, rolls and potholes; ? Mineral resource classification ? identification of structural discontinuities in orebodies affecting resource classification e.g. potholes and reef facies; ? Safety ? identifying areas with poor ground conditions that are often associated with faults, dykes and potholes.

Jan 1, 2007

The 106th Annual General Meeting of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy was held in the J.C. Lemmer Auditorium, SA National Museum of Military History, 22 Erlswold Way, Saxonwold, Johannesburg on Wednesday, 13th August, 2003. Welcome The President extended a special welcome to the guests and representatives of our sister institutes and other associations, also to recipients of awards, senior members of industry, Honorary Life Fellows, Past-presidents, our Members and other guests, among them the following: Kevin Moxham, President, Association of Mine Resident Engineers Prof. Jay Barton, Vice President, The Geological Society of South Africa Dr Gus Muller, President, Institute of Certificated Mechanical and Electrical Engineers, South Africa Marius van Rooyen, President, Institute of Mine Surveyors of South Africa Benjamin Ngulube, Deputy Vice President, South African Institution of Electrical Engineers Dr Francois Malan, Chairman, South African Institute of Rock Engineering Dr Paul Jourdan, President, Mintek

Jan 1, 2003

By K. Moxham, R. G. B. Pickering

Over the last few years Lonmin Platinum and Sandvik have embarked on a unique partnership of collaboration through a systematic approach to developing equipment to mechanize and automate narrow reef platinum mining. After the initial design and manufacture of the equipment the key aspect is the integrating equipment, people and method into a mining system. Another key a spec of mechanization is the optimization of equipment utilization and this philosophy has ensured continual evolvement of mining methods. This paper describes the trials and development that have resulted in the mining method described as Lonmin mechanized breast.

Jan 1, 2006

By K. Sugawara, H. -S. Jeong, Y. Ishiguro, J. Otani, Y. Obara, A. Hirata

A series of measurements of induced stress by the Compact Conical-ended Borehole Overcoring (CCBO) technique was performed within rock mass around a tunnel excavated in a region that an underground powerhouse is constructed under high initial rock stress. In the measurements, a phenomenon of core disking was observed during overcoring. The selecting method of strain data uninfluenced by the core disking was proposed, using X-ray CT scanner. Then, the state of induced stress determined from the selected strain data was discussed, comparing with the state of initial stress. Eine Serie von Messungen von induzierter Belastung mit kompaktem konisch-beendetem Überbohrverfahren (CCBO) wurde in Felsmassen um einen Tunnel ausgeführt, der in einer Region gebohrt wurde wo ein unterirdisches Kraftwert unter hoher anfänglicher Felsbelastung gebaut wird. Bei den Messungen wurde beim Überbohrverfahren ein Phänomen des Core Disking beobachtet. Die gewählte Methode der Belastungsdaten, unbeeinflusst durch Core Disking wurde vorgeschlagen, unter Verwendung von Röntgen-CT-Scanner. Dann wurde der Zustand der induzierten Belastung aus den gewählten Belastungsdaten diskutiert, unter Vergleich mit der ursprünglichen Belastung. Une série de mesures de contrainte induite effectuée avec la technique de forage de sur-carottage compacte à embout conique a été exécutée dans la masse rocheuse autour d'un tunnel excavé dans une région de construction d'une centrale électrique souterraine sous haute contrainte de roche initiale. Au cours des mesures, un phénomène de discage de carotte a été observé pendant le sur-carottage. La méthode de sélection des données de contrainte non influencée par le discage de carotte a été proposée, en utilisant un scanneur de tomographie calculée aux rayons X. Il s'ensuit que l'état de contrainte induite provoquée et déterminé à partir des données de la contrainte sélectionnées a été traitée, en effectuant une comparaison avec l'état de contrainte initiale.

Jan 1, 2003

By G. H. Lind

Research into the safe and economic extraction of underground coal pillars in the Witbank and Highveld coalfields of South Africa highlighted that future practices will have to consider pertinent risks associated with this least safe of all underground coal mining methods conducted in South Africa. To this end, a computer-based program called A-PEP (Analysis for Pillar Extraction Potential) was developed to assess three aspects of this mining practice, viz. risks associated with the physical attributes, operational risk attributes and economic attributes. This intelligent tool can thus be used when planning to conduct underground pillar extraction to ensure that all pertinent risk elements and legislative requirements are considered to conduct this mining method safely before a submission is made to the Department of Minerals and Energy. Keywords: operational risk management, mine planning, underground coal mining, pillar extraction.

Jan 1, 2003

By Q. G. Reynolds

Keywords: Pyrometallurgy, furnace, DC, reverse polarity, dual-electrode The dual-electrode direct current (DC) arc furnace uses two graphite electrodes, one connected as cathode, and one as anode. Such an arrangement avoids some of the design difficulties associated with the anode hearth traditionally used in single electrode and twin-cathode DC furnaces, but can introduce other design and operational difficulties including deflection of the arcs toward the furnace walls. Counter-intuitively, both arc jets in a dual-electrode furnace travel from the electrode down to the bath surface, despite carrying electric current in opposite directions ? this is suggested in the theory of the governing equations of arc formation, and confirmed by experiments using high-speed photography. The dual-electrode arc system at small pilot-plant scale is studied using a transient magneto-hydrodynamic model capable of predicting arc deflection and interaction from first principles, and the results are compared to the behaviour of twin-cathode systems at similar power. Finally, a simple arrangement of the furnace busbars, M configuration, is shown to provide some passive protection against arc deflection.

Jan 1, 2011

By R. P. Mohring

Before we look at what the challenges and opportunities for future coal mining will be, it is appropriate to have a look at whether there will be a coal industry in the future. There is much talk about the damage caused by the burning of fossil fuels and the need to replace coal and oil with more environmentally friendly energy sources. Yes, there is evidence that the current practice in burning of fossil fuel has certain negative environmental effects, however, the adverse effects for global economic development from inappropriate measures to control greenhouse gas emissions would be severe.

Jan 1, 2001

By A. v. E. Conradie, I. Nieuwoudt

Comminution and flotation circuits are frequently perturbed by disturbances, such as feed particle size variations, ore hardness and varying mineral liberation, which can have a significant impact on the recoveries and grades. Although advanced control strategies can neutralize many of these disturbances, few such systems have been implemented at present. One reason is that it is only recently that the requisite sensor systems have been developed and used to control froth flotation systems. Another is owed to the complexity of these non-linear interactive systems. In this paper, a plant-wide control strategy is considered, wherein both unit operations have a single overall control objective. The automated design of the controller is based on an advanced evolutionary algorithm viz., Symbiotic, Memetic Neuro-Evolution (SMNE), for developing neural network controllers in a reinforcement learning framework. A rigorous phenomenological comminution and flotation model was used to develop suitable neurocontrollers, which used all possible sensor inputs and available manipulated variables. The neurocontroller managed to identify optimal or near-optimal operating conditions consistently and showed robust performance in the presence of significant disturbances. The results suggest that evolutionary reinforcement learning offers a very competitive approach towards the development of integrated non-linear controllers for mineral processing plants. Keywords: neural networks, control, flotation, comminution, evolutionary reinforcement learning

Jan 1, 2003

By R. A. Harris

In this study Pt-Al thin films were prepared via electron beam physical vapour deposition (EB-PVD) with an atomic concentration ratio of Pt25:Al75. These films were heat treated at temperatures ranging from 150°C to 650°C for annealing times from 4 to 60 minutes. The resulting microstructure of these thin films were obtained via secondary electron imaging used in conjunction with depth profiling with the aid of scanning auger microscopy (PHI 700).Elemental maps of the micrographs were obtained. Simulations, based on a chemical potential Monte Carlo method1, were run for various interaction parameters. From these simulations theoretical depth-profiles and proposed microstructures were obtained. These were compared to the experimentally measured depth profiles and elemental maps. Keywords Monte Carlo, chemical potential, depth profile, Pt-Al thin films.

Jan 1, 2011

By M. Dworzanowski

The beneficiation of fine iron ore will increase in importance in the future because most new iron ore resources will be in the form of lower grade ore deposits that will require liberation of iron ore minerals at finer sizes. Generally this fine iron ore will be beneficiated to produce a pelletizing concentrate with very strict chemical and physical specifications. In addition, because of the increasing demand for iron ore there are now more opportunities to produce by-product iron ore from mining operations producing other commodities. In the past the associated iron ore minerals would report to final tailings but now there is potential value to be realised from by-product revenue. These by-product iron ore opportunities are almost all centred on producing pelletizing concentrate. Currently pelletizing concentrates are produced mainly by various combinations of flotation and magnetic separation. The selection of the beneficiation route will depend on ore mineralogy and considerations around plant capacity and final concentrate quality. The main economic iron minerals are magnetic, haematite being paramagnetic and magnetite being ferromagnetic. This, therefore, means that magnetic separation can be applied, in principle, to all fine iron-ore beneficiation plants. While flotation has a considerable capacity advantage over magnetic separation, the real advantage of magnetic separation over flotation in fine iron-ore beneficiation is that treatment of -10 µm iron ore is possible-in flotation, the feed is deslimed at 10 µm and the -10 µm stream is considered to be final tailings, even though there is often a significant amount of contained iron ore. This paper describes a study around the recovery of fine magnetite in the form of a pelletizing concentrate. The study is based on an evaluation of an iron ore by-product opportunity from an iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposit. Experiments were conducted to quantify the differences in magnetic separation performance with decrease in particle size treated. A mineralogical evaluation of all the test work products was undertaken to facilitate the interpretation of the test work results. These results were then used to propose an economically viable flowsheet for maximizing fine magnetite recovery using magnetic separation.

Jan 1, 2012

Due to the reduction in frictional resistance, the characteristics of joint infill have a major role to play on rock mass instability. This paper elucidates the laboratory behaviour of graphite infilled joints based on a large-scale shear apparatus under constant normal stiffness (CNS). Discontinuities in a graphite mine have been simulated using high strength gypsum plaster, with the joints infilled with compressed graphite layers. The Fourier series was employed to characterize the joint surface, and the method of using the Fourier coefficients for the prediction of dilation and normal stress with displacement is explained. Die Charateristik von Verbindungsfüllungen hat einen wichtigen Einfluss auf Felsmassenstabilität aufgrund der Verringerung des Reibwiderstandes. Diese Veröffentlichung untersucht das Verhalten von Graphit gefüllten Verbindungen im Labormaßstab mit einer Methode die auf einem gross-umfang Apparateprinzip unter konstanter Normal-Steifheit beruht. Unregelmässigkeiten in einer Graphit Mine wurden mit Gypsum Gips von hoher Festigkeit simuliert, die Verbindungen wurden mit kompressierten Graphitschichten gefüllt. Fourier Reihen wurden angewandt um die Verbindungs Fläche zu Characterisieren. Die Methode die verwendet wurde um die Ausdehnung und Normalkraft mit der Verschiebung mit Hilfe von Fourierkoeffizienten zu bestimmen wird beschrieben. Due à diminution des résistances par frottements, les caractéristiques des joints de remplissage joue un rôle majeur sur les instabilités de la roche. Cet article étudie le comportement en laboratoire des joints de remplissage en graphite à partir d’un dispositif de friction à grande échelle sous rigidité normale constante. Les discontinuités dans une mine de graphite ont été simulées grâce à un plâtre à haute teneur en gypse, dont les joints ont été remplis de couches de graphite compressées. La caractérisation de la surface des joints a été réalisée avec les séries de Fourier. La méthode utilisant le coefficient de Fourrier pour la prédiction de la dilatation et de la compression en fonction du déplacement est également expliquée.

Jan 1, 2003

By N. Mutemeri, T. -L. Field, M. Chuma

The categorization of artisanal and small-scale mining has a significant impact on perception and understanding of the sector, particularly from a livelihood perspective. Several developing countries classify different types of artisanal and small-scale mining based on legal status. Given the nature such activities, the tragedy of the commons theory has been applied to understand the inevitable environmental, economic, sociocultural, safety, and health negative externalities – which are products of informality and illegality. Consequently, formalization is a panacea to sustainability. This article aims to offer a conceptual organization and foundational knowledge for characterization of artisanal and small-scale mining. It seeks to identify existing literature on the subject to avoid replication and acknowledge other scholars. Moreover, the article aims to place the study within the context of existing literature, establishing relationships with other studies and why the research is necessary. This paper pinpoints gaps left from other studies in so far as the characterization of artisanal and small-scale mining is concerned. Thus, reviewing literature abetted in finding similarities and differences on how artisanal and small-scale mining is defined from a scholarly and legal basis. The paper ascertains major claims made by earlier research on this topic, such as environmental impacts, the lack of adequate regulatory framework, and presents querying and probing questions lacking from other studies.

Jul 10, 2024

A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of stainless steel production, including that of the nickel, ferronickel, ferrochromium and iron feedstocks was carried out using inventory data derived from the literature. The environmental impact categories considered in the study were Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification Potential (AP) and total (or full cycle) energy consumption. The effects of different sources of electricity (black coal, natural gas and hydroelectricity) were also examined in the study. The results of the LCA showed that when ferronickel is used as the nickel source, the total energy consumption for stainless steel production is approximately 50% higher than when nickel metal is used as the nickel source (75 MJ/kg cf. 49 MJ/kg). This result comes about largely because the Fe units in ferronickel have a much higher energy intensity than do the Fe units in pig iron, and the greater the use of the former at the expense of the latter, the greater is the total energy consumption. The results also showed that the production of ferronickel made by far the largest contribution (59%) to the total energy consumption for stainless steel production when this feedstock is used as the nickel source, but when nickel metal is used as the nickel source the contributions of the various stages are more evenly distributed. It was also observed that the electricity consumption of the electric furnaces used in the production of ferronickel, ferrochromium and stainless steel contributed approximately 50% to the total energy consumed in stainless steel production. Given the relatively low efficiencies associated with electrical power generation, significant reductions in the total energy of stainless steel production could be anticipated if more direct use of thermal energy was made in the ferronickel, ferrochromium and/or stainless steel smelting stages, for example by utilising bath smelting processes.

Jan 1, 2004

By A. J. Geldenhuys

This paper will focus on two topics, namely (1) an innovative process for the neutralization and partial sulphate removal of acid streams produced during coal mining and processing and (2)optimization of this integrated neutralization process by adding small amounts of synthetic organic polymers. The integrated lime and limestone process has been developed to neutralize acid mine water and to remove sulphate (to less than1 200 mg/l), magnesium and metals. Limestone and lime treatment is the most cost-effective technology for neutralization and partial sulphate removal of acidic/sulphate-rich water to sulphate levels of less than 1 500 mg/l due to precipitation of magnesium and removal of the associated sulphate fraction (through gypsum crystallization). Neutralized mine water of this quality may be suitable for irrigation. The process consists of the following stages: 1. Limestone (CaCO3) neutralization to raise the pH to 7 and CO2-production. 2. Lime (Ca(OH)2) treatment to pH 12 for Mg(OH)2precipi-tation and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) crystallization. 3. pH adjustment with CO2recovered from stage 1 and CaCO3 precipitation. Retention times of 1 hour, 4 hours and 1/2an hour were required by stages 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The sulphate level was reduced to 1 094 mg/l, which is less than the original aim of 1 200mg/l. Chemical costs associated with neutralization, using limestone instead of lime, are reduced by 69% in the integrated limestone/lime process. The overflow water from the clarifier of each of the above stages generally contains a wide variety of colloidal impurities that may cause the water to appear turbid or may impart colour. This results in very slow sludge settling rates that cause overflow water with a high degree of turbidity and colour. There are a number of successive or simultaneous stages involved in the agglomeration of particles. To get optimum neutralisation of the acid water and partial sulphate removal to below the saturation level of gypsum (i.e. 1 500mg/l), maximum sludge recovery is needed. The higher the concentration of seed crystals, the larger the surface area. Therefore, effective removal of suspended and colloidal matter from the overflow of each stage is required and can be achieved by coagulation and flocculation. The polymers PAC6 and 3095 were effectively used as coagulant and flocculant respectively. The addition of these polymers resulted in a clear overflow in each of the above stages with a very low turbidity.

Jan 1, 2003

By K. Böde

Hochtief AG Germany has developed a comprehensive management and information system for the construction industry named Aristoteles. This system is an efficient supporting tool to manage a variety of construction sites as well as operating business units with required economic targets. As such, Aristoteles offers wide-ranging control of complex economic processes in construction in a consistent manner. In this paper the process oriented functions of the system will be described with special emphasis on finance accounting and cost control. The basic elements in this respect are tender estimation, creation of initial project budgets and running budgets, regular determination of work done and result forecast to the end of the project. Further, cost accounting, monthly reporting, and all balance-related postings are included. On the basis of the extensive reporting (targeted/actual cost comparison, cost manager, project report, actual/targeted hours worked comparison, overhead cost report, amendment report or project (result) lists of all projects realized by one business unit), the responsible managers can make justified project evaluations, project controls and variance analyses during the project period and derive appropriate management measures. Thus, Aristoteles includes all substantial elements for the risk management of the operational business. In big construction joint-stock companies it is of crucial importance to satisfy the information requirements of the investors. In this respect the system provides a transparent presentation of the financial, investment and profitability situation of the company. In the international construction industry the balancing rules according to IAS (International Accounting Standards) have already been used to a larger extent. In accordance with these rules the partial profits of the work during execution can be shown as realized even before completion of a long-term contract. The validity of Aristoteles will be outlined briefly. Major advantages using the system are highly enhanced accuracy of project controlling, systematic overhead allocation to projects, change of attitude of the project personnel due to increased cost consciousness and improved flow of information within the company.

Jan 1, 2003

By H. Saroglou

The anisotropic behaviour of Athens Schist has been brought out through the testing of specimens with varying orientation of schistosity with respect to the major principal stress under uniaxial, triaxial and dynamic conditions. A large number of results from tests on intact rock specimens of the Athens Schist were statistically analysed and evaluated.

Jan 1, 2004