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By Salim Akhtar

The operation of a mineral processing plant with a complex flowsheet is represented by a mathematical operator. Such a representation permits a quantitative evaluation and monitoring of the separation processes in different sections of a processing plant, and gives an overall separation efficiency of the plant.

Jan 1, 1973

By Mark Newton Lowry

In the garden of national problems recognized by the American public, imports of mineral products is a hardy perennial. Concern for the security of mineral supplies has preoccupied nations since the industrial revolution and the mechanization of warfare. Since 1973, Americans have also been sensitized to the potential economic costs of overseas mineral supply disruptions and the cartelization of foreign production. Though oil prices have plunged since 1981, the import dependency issue remains topical. Political turmoil in Southern Africa reminds us that mineral supply disruptions will occur in the future as they have in the past. Producers of iron and steel, copper, and refined petroleum products seek protection from imports on national security grounds. The Reagan administration is proposing sweeping changes in the management of the federal mineral stockpiles. s an enduring need to take stock of the mineral trade position of the United States. This article considers the changing role that the U.S. has played in the twentieth century in non-fuel minerals trade. We begin by enunciating some principles that are useful in analyzing this trade. The changing pattern of trade in the 1900-1969 period is then reviewed. There follows a more detailed analysis of mineral trade trends in the 1970-84 period. Some consideration is given in the final section to the significance of non-fuel mineral trade for the U.S. economy. THE ECONOMICS OF U.S. MINERAL TRADE The allocation of non-fuel mineral products in the United States has in this century been accomplished primarily through the market mechanism. Except where trade barriers have distorted price signals, this means that mineral supplies have been obtained from the least cost source, with little regard for their country of origin. Mineral prices facing U.S. firms are sensitive to shifts in the domestic supply and demand, but are also sensitive to economic conditions overseas. The balance of trade in each mineral product has depended on the amount that is profitably produced and consumed domestically at the world price. The nation has produced exactly as much as it has consumed only by chance. U.S. demand for non-fuel minerals is derived from the demand for manufactures, farm commodities, and other goods whose production requires mineral products as inputs. The demand for such goods can be quite volatile, and in most industries moves cyclically due to its sensitivity to the level of aggregate economic activity. The supply of mineral products depends on the cost of extracting and processing mineral raw materials. These costs do not vary greatly in the short run. Because of these attributes of mineral markets, U. S. trade in mineral products fluctuates considerably from year to year. Most of this volatility results from shifts in domestic and overseas demand and from changes in exchange rates and trade barriers. Longer run changes in the mineral trade pattern can also be discerned. These depend on secular trends in demand and in the cost of mineral extraction and processing at home and overseas. The United States was originally endowed with extensive reserves of an array of mineral-rich ores and fossil fuels. It is also a nation with an entrepreneurial climate and technological capability conducive to extracting and processing those reserves. Not surprisingly, it has at one time or another ranked among the world's leading producers of a great many mineral products. With a population that is large and an economy that is technologically advanced by world standards, the U.S. has also been a leading consumer of mineral products. Because of its voracious appetite, the bulk of mineral products produced domestically has traditionally been consumed domestically as well. Net exports have been sizable only in those industries in which the nation has enjoyed an extraordinary cost advantage. Depletion has gradually reduced the cost advantage that the U.S. mining industry once enjoyed. The economic conditions that encouraged early development of U.S. mineral resources have

Jan 1, 1986

By A. G. Mayton

Bureau of Mines research has addressed improved operator protection for thin-seam shuttle cars. Because of working height restrictions in thin-seam mines (1.22 m or 48 in), MSHA regulations require that-canopy protection on shuttle cars be provided only in mines 1.07 m (42 in) and greater; however, variances are given to mines 1.22 m (48 in) and below. This paper reviews past Bureau efforts to develop protective structures for thin-seam shuttle car operators. The paper also discusses recent research leading to a novel method of protecting shuttle car operators, in mines as low as 1.02 m (40 in), through the use of a cross-car, end-mounted operator compartment.

Jan 1, 1989

By Simon D. Strauss

This article is part of a presentation Strauss made Dec. 3, 1988 at the sixth annual American Mining Hall of Fame (AMHofF) banquet in Tucson, AZ. At the banquet, the Mining Club of the Southwest honored Strauss by naming him the 1988 recipient to the AMHofF. (Industry newswatch, page 6). Introduction In the last two decades, there have been two previous periods of sharply rising copper prices. One was in 1973-74; the other in 1979-80. In both cases, a short period of high copper prices was followed by steep and prolonged periods of low prices. In the language of the market analyst, the high prices were called spikes. Is it likely, then, that three or four years from now the present price of copper will show up as a spike in the charts? There are substantial differences between the current position and the markets of 1973-74 and 1979-80. In 1973-74, US copper prices were subject to government-imposed price ceilings of $0.60 per lb through early December, 1973. These were increased to $0.68 per lb through May, 1974. Meanwhile, mines outside the United States were free of restraint. Rising demand in London pushed the price above $1 per lb in the third quarter of 1973. In early April 1974, it reached a peak of $1.50 a lb. In May of that year, the US ceilings were removed and the domestic price began to rise. What were the causes of this price strength? While ceilings held the domestic price below the world market, domestic consumers acquired all the tonnage offered by US mines. Meanwhile, in the world market, buyers feared prolonged shortages. The Club of Rome had warned that world economic growth would be limited by impending depletion of mineral resources. There was al so concern about a copper cartel that might increase copper prices even more. In early 1974, at a special United Nations session, developing-country spokesmen warned the industrialized world to expect high commodity prices. Also adding to the concerns of copper buyers was the fear that when US wage contracts expired in mid-1974, protracted strikes might ensue. The combined effect of this atmosphere was that consumers accumulated large amounts of copper, far above their normal carry. By midsummer, the position changed radically. While some strikes did occur in the United States, they proved short-lived. The most significant development was a massive economic recession. The energy crisis was causing enormous dislocations in the world economy. Construction activities were sharply reduced and automobile sales plummeted. Public confidence was shaken. Copper sales fell precipitately as consumers decided to draw down their swollen inventories. The price came down too. In April 1974, the London price- as noted-was $1.50 per lb. By the end of the year, it was down to $0.57 per lb. In 1973-74, the copper price rise was fed by fears of shortages, cartels, and strikes. In 1979-80, the market rose on the strength of good demand plus political and military instability. The price rise was also fed by inflationary trends, exemplified by speculation in precious metals. Prior to this second spike in copper prices, the market had been depressed despite economic recovery. Despite reduced US output, copper production in the rest of the world was increasing. Though consumption was rising, surplus stocks reached unprecedented levels. At the end of 1977, the aggregate of stocks at the refineries and in the exchange warehouses was 1.5 Mt (1.67 million st). That was more than three months' shipments at then rates of consumption. In 1978, the statistical position improved. Shipments of refined copper that year were 8% greater than in 1977. The result was reduced visible stocks but -just as was to be the case in 1984-86 - the price remained depressed. In 1979, an even sharper drop in visible stocks occurred as shipments rose by another 4%. This time, though, the price responded. In December 1978, the price in current dollars had been less than $0.70 per lb. By the end of 1979, it was above $1 per lb. And in the first quarter of 1980, it averaged more than $1.20 per lb. Military and political developments were a factor. The hostage crisis in Iran was followed by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. To many, it appeared that war might result if the Soviets pushed on into Pakistan. At the same time, speculation drove gold and silver prices to incredible levels. As silver prices rose above $40 per oz), copper above $1 per lb did not seem unreasonable. Then, in March 1980, the precious metals price boom collapsed. Copper prices also retreated, though not as much. In February 1980, the copperprice averaged $1.32 per lb. By December, it had dropped to $0.85 per lb. In 1981 and 1982, the decline continued. The present copper situation Why is the current situation different from these two previous episodes of high prices? First of all, today's inventories are far lower than they were in either 1974 or 1980, when the price declines began. The stocks at refineries and in exchange warehouses are substantially less than they were then. More significantly, consumers today have very limited holdings compared with stocks they carried in 1974 and 1980. Even if faced with a downturn in their own business, copper consumers will not be able to stay out of the market. To the extent they have any business at all, they will have to buy copper. And on the supply side, there is also a significant difference. The year 1988 has been unusual. US production is up sharply, responding to higher prices. But production is little changed in the rest of the Free World. Indeed, several of the major producing countries have mined less copper this year than in 1987 despite the prices increases. Peru has had labor problems that have cut its output. Zambia and Zaire suffer from shortages of expatriate technicians, not to mention spare parts. They also suffer from the failure to maintain equipment or perform adequate development. In Chile, the two largest mines, Chuquicamata and El Teniente, have not met their production targets. Chuquicamata is struggling with high arsenic content in its ore. And, in late 1987, severe rockbursts hampered operations at El Teniente. In addition, depletion of some mines in Australia and South Africa has offset rising output at other properties. Indeed, when final mine output figures for 1988 become available, it may well be

Jan 1, 1989

By K. M. O’Connor

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is a pulse testing technique developed by the telecommunications and power industry for use in locating breaks in cables. Variations of this principle have been utilized in applications pertinent to closure and reclamation of coal operations. This paper focuses on applications of TDR technology in the mining industry including monitoring of slope movement, abandoned mine subsidence, ground water levels and subsurface LNAPLs, landfill cover performance, and consolidation of mine tailings. TDR technology has been particularly effective for remote automated monitoring, and alarm systems have been implemented for monitoring subsidence.

Jan 1, 2003

By W. T. Robertson

My charge is to review briefly "Coal In The Electric Utility Industry - Present and Future." Thus, I will not dwell on the overall energy picture, other than to express what most others involved in the energy picture know - we're in trouble! Several years ago, speaking to another engineering society, I said, "Much has been and yet will be said and written about the energy situation in our Country." What an understatement! The energy question has reached crisis proportions and is a top priority item at the highest level of government, Unfortunately, it will be in that situation for some time to come. Many factors created this complex problem, and we all share some of the blame. But I am perplexed when I read in the popular press that environmental factors are unrelated to the energy crisis when I know this to be untrue. In the recent past all forms of energy have been cast in the role of villain, particularly coal with its problems of surface mining, mine safety, acid water drainage, sulfur content, and a multitude of other adverse factors relating to the environment in one way or another. As you know, the sulfur situation has led to the closing of numerous mines, resulting in the lessening of our mining capacity. Today, along the Eastern Seaboard, 60 to 70 million tons of coal are displaced by imported oil, primarily to meet air standards. Even in the Midwest, utilities sitting on enormous coal reserves are converting to other fuels or hauling low sulfur coal thousands of miles from the western Mountain States. [We will hear more about this coal from another speaker on the program this morning.]

Jan 1, 1973

By E. Alan Haley

Accurate and economic control of line and grade on long tunnels, large structures, excavations and waterways, has been a problem to surveyors and engineers for decades. The conventional method of surveying, incorporating a level, transit, and a number of surveying technicians, has proven, in the past, to be a very expensive and time-consuming operation. Alignment with a laser has solved most of the problem. Figure 1. With the advent of the Perkin-Elmer Model 5620 Construction Laser, use of laser light is now both dependable and economically feasible for unlimited applications in modern construction and surveying. The laser projects a continuous, narrow red beam of brilliant light, providing a constant alignment reference, and will not interfere with operations.

Jan 1, 1968

Although grinding mill liner life has been the subject of extensive studies, evaluation of the effect of liner design on power consumption, a far more significant part of total grinding costs, has been less comprehensive. The factors that effect ball mill energy efficiency are reviewed, and attention is then focused on the mechanisms of grinding. The trajectory of the outer row of balls, with different lifting face angles, is derived, and basic recommendations for mill speed and liner configuration are presented.

Jan 1, 1981

By G. S. Dobby

High-intensity wet magnetic separators have been successfully introduced into the mineral processing field over the past ten to fifteen years, due largely to rapid advancements in magnet design. Wet magnetic separation, until recent years, was applied solely to the concentration of minerals of high magnetic susceptibility, such as magnetite, at relatively coarse sizes. Now, however, high-intensity separators are capable of treating weakly paramagnetic minerals and have extended the range of treatable particle size down to about one micrometre(1,2). . One of the more recent-high-intensity separators developed is the Kolm¬Marston Marston type high-gradient magnetic separator (HGMS) (3,4) It consists basically of an iron-clad solenoid surrounding a matrix material - a fine, ferromagnetic steel wool or expanded metal lath. A schematic diagram of the device is shown in Figure 1. Large, highly localized, pertebations of the magnetic field are created by the ferromagnetic matrix. It is these field gradients that are instrumental in developing large magnetic forces which act on the mineral particles. Operation of the separator is simple. Slurried sample is fed through the matrix and, depending upon the mineral parameters of particle size and magnetic susceptibility and. the operating parameters of flow rate, field strength and feed weight, some particles will be attracted to and adhere to the magnetized matrix, while the others will flow through the matrix. The separation is completed by later removing the background magnetic field and flushing the captured mineral particles into a separate container. The process can also be applied on a continuous basis (S).

Jan 1, 1977

By Sunny Schoone, Maximilian Getz, Felix Leaman, ELISABETH CLAUSEN

Jan 5, 2023

By Maribeth Amyot, Y. J. Wang, S. S. Peng

Introduction The impact of computers on individuals and businesses increases each day. And the mining industry is no exception. The growing number of short courses, symposia, and feature articles in journals on the subject of computers is indicative of the developments and interest in their application to mining. Given this interest and the growing importance of computers, a legitimate concern is the computing background of graduating mining engineers. Based on a sample survey, this paper presents the current status of computer education in Accreditation Board for Engineering Technology (ABET)-accredited mining engineering programs in the US. Specific topics addressed include hardware and software available to students, integration of computers into curricula, concerns of mining educators, and historical and anticipated trends in computing education. Methodology Nine of the 19 ABET accredited mining engineering schools (as published in the SME-AIME Guide to Minerals Schools) were surveyed. Interviews consisting of open-ended questions were conducted with a knowledgeable faculty member from each of these schools. This was done to obtain an overall view of computing in mining engineering programs. The intent was not to evaluate nor compare individual schools, so a complete census was deemed unnecessary. The minimal deviations between the responses to the subjective questions reinforces the credibility of the sample as being representative. Results Hardware Most of the mining engineering schools polled had access to hardware on three scales - mainframe computers available university wide, minicomputers available in the college or department, and microcomputers available at all three levels. Without exception, each school had access to mainframe and microcomputers. Minicomputers, however, were not available at every school. The mainframe computers have been in place the longest. The predominant mainframe currently on campuses is the IBM model. Mainframes were once the essence of all applications. But the improved availability and capabilities of smaller machines have afforded users a viable alternative. The increasing practice in education of assessing charges for time used on the mainframe - as opposed to no charge for time on the mini- and microcomputers - makes use of the smaller machines attractive. Conversely, much of the mining engineering software is only operational on mainframes. Sometimes this restriction exists because the requisite speed or storage inherent in the software can only be met by the mainframe. More often, however, it is because the software was developed when mainframes were the only machines available, and it has not yet been adapted to run on a smaller machine. At the schools polled, many mining engineering problems that are well suited to microcomputers are being solved on mainframes simply because microcomputer software is not available. Minicomputers are available at the department or college level in many mining programs. DEC is the most popular make. Often, the minicomputers were installed to alleviate the inconveniences of attempting to access and use an overcrowded mainframe, to avoid being charged for time used on the mainframe, and to meet the needs of a specific research project. The minicomputers are currently used much more for research than for teaching applications. Therefore, minis are seldom used by undergraduate students. Microcomputers have become extremely popular at mining schools within the last five years. Generally, some form of computing policy or strategy was established near the time the first microcomputers were purchased. This was formulated in part to ensure consistency, or at least compatibility, in the type of machines acquired. Microcomputers were subsequently selected based on the established computing policies; ma-

Jan 7, 1985

By Yang Song, Li Shaokang, Wang Zhiqiang, Wang Jinjun, Li Guofeng, Su Meixuan

CaCO3, as a component widely existing in natural minerals, is a common impurity. In recent years, triboelectric separation has been applied to the separation of minerals containing CaCO3. However, the CaCO3’ s tribocharging mechanism is still unclear and the charging effect of CaCO3 is not obvious. In order to study the effect of triboelectric charging of CaCO3 particles under different conditions, according to the single particle frictional collision charge-mass ratio formula derived from the condenser model, an experimental platform for particle tribocharging was built in this paper. Then, the formula of charge-to-mass ratio (Q/m) was derived based on the analysis of the particle force. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to record particle motion trajectories to calculate the Q/m of one particle by this formula. In the experiment, the airflow velocity, tribocharge material, and moving distance of the particles were varied to investigate the variation of the particle charge-mass ratio results. The results show that CaCO3 was negatively charged when tribocharging with mental. The particle’s Q/m is positively correlated with the airspeed. When the metal is triboelectrically charged with the insulator, the metal with a smaller work function leads to the insulator particle with a larger Q/m. As the moving distance of the particles increases beyond 230 mm, the particle charge ratio decreases. The particle charge-mass ratio is consistent with the trend of the charge-mass ratio deduced from the capacitance model.

Jun 3, 2023

By Z. Jin, D. DePaoli, P. Zhang

"Phosphorite, or phosphate rock, is the most significant secondary rare-earth resource. It contains high amounts of phosphate-bearing minerals along with low contents of rare earth elements (REEs). In Florida, about 19 Mt of phosphate rock are mined annually and most are used to manufacture fertilizers using a wet process, in which sulfuric acid reacts with phosphates to produce phosphoric acid and phosphogypsum. In the wet process, REEs are also leached out into solution and eventually get lost in the leaching residue and phosphate fertilizer. Recovering REEs from Florida phosphate rock in the wet process will be beneficial to broadening rare-earth availability, improving the quality of phosphoric acid product and protecting the environment.This study focuses on the influences of wet-process operating conditions on REE leaching efficiency. The results indicate that REE leaching efficiency increases with phosphoric acid addition in the initial pulp. At a temperature of 75 °C, a stoichiometric ratio of sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) to calcium oxide (CaO) of 1.05 and a weight ratio of liquid to solid of 3.5, REE leaching efficiency reached a relatively high value of 52.82 percent. The trends of REE leaching efficiency were similar to those for phosphoric acid (P2O5 ). Extensive tests on the leaching residue showed that during leaching, about 90 percent of the REEs were released from the phosphate rock but only 52.82 percent ended up in the leaching solution. This phenomenon can be attributed to two factors: (1) the effect of phosphate ions (PO4 3-) in the solution, which caused REE ions to form REE phosphates and be precipitated into the leaching residue, and (2) the influence of large amounts of anions such as sulfate (SO4 2-), dihydrogen phosphate (H2 PO4 -) and hydrogen phosphate (HPO4 2-) anions as well as the polar molecule H3 PO4 , which surrounded the REE cations and formed an ion atmosphere that prevented the PO4 3- from contacting and combining with REE cations. Interaction of these two opposite effects determined the REE distribution between leaching solution and residue."

Jan 1, 2017

By A. D. Hammond

"INTRODUCTION The recent drop in iron ore prices has claimed an unwitting casualty in vanadium. Vanadium is dominantly produced as a co-product of steel production. The recent shutdown at EVRAZ’s Mapochs steel-vanadium operations in South Africa has cut-off 10% of the world’s vanadium output. Earlier in February, 2015, Australia’s Atlantic Ltd. suspended operations at its Windimurra iron-vanadium complex after a fire caused severe damage at the plant. Since then, challenging market conditions has resulted in the permanent closure of this operation. This decoupling of vanadium production from integrated iron ore producers presents an opportunity for vanadium exploration companies to target single-product deposits. This trend is manifested in the increasing number of pure-play vanadium ventures around the world.The mine production of vanadium is dominated by three countries namely, China, South Africa and Russia, which collectively produce 98% of the world’s vanadium. While the use of vanadium as an alloy in the steel industry remains by far the largest application for this metal, growth in demand is expected to come from the renewable energy industry in the form of batteries for energy storage. This paper summarizes the current state of vanadium exploration, briefly describes the vanadium market and lists sources of future demand for the metal. TREND IN VANADIUM EXPLORATION The most active participants in the current vanadium exploration are pure-play vanadium ventures in Brazil, South Africa and Australia. These ventures are targeting deposits with higher vanadium grade than those typically mined in titaniferous magnetite operated by integrated steel-vanadium producers. The 10% shortfall in vanadium production resulting from the shutdown at EVRAZ’s Mapochs is expected to be partially compensated by Largo Resources’ Maracás Menchen vanadium operation located in the State of Bahia in Brazil, which commenced operation in August 2014 and is expected to reach design capacity of 11,400 tonnes of vanadium pentaoxide (V2O5) by the end of 2015. The estimated production1 for 2015 is 6,500 tonnes of V2O5 at a target production cost of $3.60/lb. This is the first vanadium operation to be placed in production in the Western Hemisphere in over 35 years."

Jan 1, 2016

By B. Mishra, A. Staley, D. Kirkpatrick

The major waste product of the alkaline extraction of alumina from bauxite (Bayer Process) is known as red mud. Approximately one ton of red mud is produced for every two tons of bauxite mined. The red mud produced from Jamaican bauxite is rich in hematite, alumina and titanium oxide. It has been shown that more than 90% (by weight) alumina can be recovered from red mud by soda ash sintering and caustic leaching. Hematite can be carbothermically reduced with a degree of metallization of more than 94%, resulting in attempts, for magnetic separation. These separations are desirable because there are no waste products generated. Consequently, there is an opportunity for complete utilization of the waste material. Conversely, the preseparated material could be charged through the tuyeres in an iron blast furnace, or it could be smelted to produce pig iron. If smelted, the concentration of titanium oxide in the slag would be high enough to justify its recovery by an established acid-leach process. This paper describes the results of alumina recovery and the plans for titanium oxide recovery from red-mud. In addition, the situation of ongoing efforts in iron extraction, particularly, the method of magnetic separation of the reduced material. The problems associated with the use of reduced red mud as an alternative to direct-reduced iron (DRI) is also discussed. A critical assessment of the recovery sequence chosen for the products is described based on economics. Key words: Red mud, Waste product utilization, Alumina recovery, Titanium oxide, Iron

Jan 1, 2003

By S. L. Lebo, J. D. Gargulak

Lignin, the second most abundant natural polymer and bi-product of the pulp and paper industry, has been commercially available in a number of forms since 1940. This growing industry is fueled by demand in traditional applications. Reagents that offer unique solutions in various mineral process applications are examples of advanced uses that also fuel growth. These applications include flotation reagents in fluorspar, bastnäsite and potash, as well as in the zinc pressure leach process. Due to the fact that no concerted effort has been made to find applications for modified lignosulfonates, it is quite possible that this natural material will find use in other benefication processes.

Jan 1, 2002

By C. Haycocks

The Appalachian coal fields contain many mineable contiguously placed coal seams. Selection of the mining sequence for these seams, historically and currently, is based primarily on considerations of seam ownership, availability and economics. Mining any seam can seriously affect subsequent operations in coal seams both above and below the one being mined. The effect is often detrimental to recovery costs and safety of mining in the subsequent seams. The purpose of this paper is to examine the conditions that can develop in an underlying seam due to stress concentrations that can occur below pillars or abutment zones in an overlying seam, and suggest guidelines for avoiding them. This situation most commonly occurs when the overlying seam is mined first, although simultaneous and subsequent mining of the upper seam can also produce such effects. Other interaction phenomena resulting from subsidence or arching will not be considered here. The methodology used in this research utilized both computer and body loaded photoelastic models to study the interaction mechanisms. Field studies are used in both interpretation and analysis of the results. Numerous examples of load transfer from upper workings exist in all parts of the world and many of these have been incorporated into this work. Such interaction problems are quite common and likely to be an ever increasing occurrence as mining activities in old seams are completed and new seams opened up.

Jan 1, 1982

By John W. Shield

Oxide gold reserves are being rapidly depleted, especially in regions with long histories of gold mining, such as the Black Hills of South Dakota. However, these districts often have substantial additional deposits, where gold is refractory. It is not amenable to traditional cyanide extraction due to the presence of sulfide minerals that encapsulate or otherwise preclude the economic extraction of the gold. Several technologies have been developed to render refractory sulfide deposits amenable to traditional cyanide processing. These include roasting and pressure autoclaving. Unfortunately, these oxidation processes require substantial capital investment and incur significant operating costs. Microorganisms that obtain energy for their life processes by the oxidation of iron sulfides can be used to treat gold-bearing refractory sulfide minerals. As the bacteria convert the sulfide to sulfate, they expose any gold associated with the sulfide matrix. This makes the gold amenable to cyanide extraction.

Jan 1, 1996

By R. L. Grayson, F. Giana, R. Aspinwall

Small-mine and contractor Fatal Incidence Rates have been a problem for over 20 years in the coal industry, and the rates persist as unacceptably high. This paper briefly retraces historical information and data on the continuing problem and recounts the many unsuccessful efforts and initiatives to address the problems effectively. Next the results of a review of international literature on addressing the problems are presented. After focusing on a method to pinpoint the trouble spots more specifically through a nested data analysis, suggestions are provided on how the problem may potentially be addressed more systematically and effectively in the U.S.

Jan 1, 2006

By Clayr Alexander

Stillwater Mining Co. (SMC) is engaged in developing, extracting, processing and refining palladium, platinum and associated metals (PGM)from the J-M Reef. This geological formation is located in Stillwater, Sweet Grass and Park counties in southern Montana. Associated byproduct metals include rhodium, gold, silver, nickel and copper. SMC’s current mining operations are near Nye, MT. The company is currently developing a second underground palladium and platinum mine, the East Boulder project, about 21 km (13 miles) west of the Nye operations. A 5,650-m (18,550-ft) tunnel is required to gain access to the ore-bearing horizon (J-M Reef).

Jan 1, 1999