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By Charles W. Merrill

The price records of 7 representative mineral commodities for the 68-year period 1890 through 1957 have been compiled and analyzed for significant trends. When reduced to real prices in terms of dollars of constant purchasing power or to the purchasing power of industrial wages at average rates, a substantial overall fall in prices is revealed. This downtrend contradicts the widely held concept that, heavy drafts on a mineral resource must lead to scarcity, reflected in rising prices. Three metals (aluminum, copper, and pig iron), two fuels (bituminous coal and petroleum)', and two nonmetals (sulfur and cement) have been chosen because of their preeminence in their respective categories, their significance in an industrial economy, and the ready availability of their price records. It might be added that these seven commodities. were selected before any price figures were compiled, none was selected or rejected to substantiate any preconceived notions as to price trends, The overall importance of the seven is demonstrated by the fact that, taken together, they composed over three-fourths of the value of all minerals produced in the United States in 1957. The first step in the analysis was to reduce the price records to a basis for significant comparisons, Two such comparisons have been made: (1) The quantities of each of the commodities that could have been purchased for an average hour's wage in each year; and (2) the unit price of each commodity through hhe years in terms of deflated dollars. These data are set forth in the accompanying table and two charts.

Jan 1, 1959

By Yoshinori Iwasaki, Shosei Serata, Yutaka Mochida

A new comprehensive insitu instrumentation technique named this RCC Method has been developed for rapid assessment and improvement of the structural stability of underground openings. When applied to tunnel construction, the degree of present and prospective safety of underground openings can be determined in quantitative terms within 10 to 20 minutes of microcreep observation. When applied to mining, roofs and floors can be stabilized by controlling the stress conditions. This stress control method has eliminated the need for intensive roof bolting and extensive floor renewal in all cases where it was applied. Use of this technique is illustrated by field examples from the Seikan Undersea Tunnel of Japan and deep potash mining in Canada. NEW INSTRUMENTATION TECHNIQUE: THE RCC METHOD Failure problems in underground excavation usually arise in weak non-elastic grounds where conventional rock mechanics theories of elasticity are not only useless but also misleading. Presently, discontinuity planes in the ground are being considered a factor in assessing these failure problems, and while this development is interesting academically, it is not of much use in actual excavation work, where it is nearly impossible to identify and quantize all existing planes of discontinuity. Even if such an extraordinary task could be accomplished at an underground excavation site, effective use of the data would be difficult and impractical for rapid excavation work, with the possible exception of rare cases of ideally elastic ground.

Jan 1, 1976

By A. R. Rule

As part of the Federal effort to help maintain an adequate supply of fertilizer minerals, the Bureau of Mines is conducting research to characterize complex, low-grade western phosphate rock and to develop methods for economic recovery of phosphate. The rock varies from soft, friable, altered phosphatic shale to hard, tightly cemented, unaltered phosphate rock. To supplement current beneficiation by sizing, a flotation procedure was devised that included depression of phosphate minerals with H2SiF6 and anionic flotation of carbonate minerals, followed immediately by cationic flotation of silicate minerals. Application of the procedure to several different ores resulted in phosphate concentrates that ranged from 28 to 31 pct P20S in grade and from 60 to 70 pct in phosphate recovery.

Jan 1, 1977

By Robert F. Droullard

The U. S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) has investigated instrumentation and methods for measuring exposure to radon daughters in underground mine atmospheres. Both personal and area monitors have been studied through in-house and contract research. A field study in uranium mines identified some reliability problems that required additional work for the personal dosimeter systems. Improved versions of continuous working level detectors have been developed and tested for use as area monitors in underground mines. Test results for the personal and area monitors were satisfactory for underground mine applications.

Jan 1, 1981

By Philip Weaver

The MIDAS project is funded by the European Commission (DG Research) and began on the 1st November 2013. The project will investigate the environmental impact of deep-sea mineral and energy extraction: specifically, polymetallic sulphides, manganese nodules, cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts and the potential mining of rare earth elements. As deep-sea mining becomes ever closer, and the International Seabed Authority begins to develop its regulatory framework for exploitation of deep-sea minerals, MIDAS is well timed to provide fundamental scientific information. The MIDAS partnership represents a unique combination of scientists, industry, social scientists, legal experts, nongovernmental organisations and small and medium enterprises. MIDAS is carrying out research into the nature and scales of the potential impacts of mining including 1) physical disturbance of the seabed by mining, the creation of mine tailings; 2) the potential effects of particle-laden plumes in the water column, and 3) the possible toxic chemicals that might be released by the mining process. Key biological unknowns, such as connectivity between populations, impacts of the loss of biological diversity on ecosystem functioning, and how quickly the ecosystems will recover will all be addressed. The plan is to use this information to aid development of recommendations for best practice in the mining industry. A key component is the involvement of industry within the project and through stakeholder engagements to find feasible solutions. The project will work closely with European and international regulatory organisations to take these recommendations forward into legislation. A major element of MIDAS will be to develop methods and technologies for 1) preparing baseline assessments of biodiversity, and 2) monitoring activities remotely in the deep sea during and after exploitation, including ecosystem recovery. To carry out this work MIDAS is conducting a number of research cruises to examine the above issues at potential sites for exploitation of SMS and nodule deposits. This talk will present some of the recent findings of the project.

Sep 1, 2014

By L. W. Berry

Drill and blast planning is critical to successful mine production, both in timing and in results. However, typical planning, reporting, and information exchange usually involves large quantities of data collated in a discordant set of spreadsheets, databases, and reports. Collecting, analyzing, modeling, and distributing all data necessary for efficient drill and blast operations is time consuming and cumbersome. MineSight Axis Drill and Blast provides an extensible core of functions, seamlessly integrated with other MineSight software tools, to make sense of this information. The benefits of improving the management of drilling and blasting processes are immense and result in improved fragmentation at a lower cost, improved shovel and truck productivity, and enhanced ore processing.

Jan 1, 2011

By Howard L. Hartman

Pardon my audacity, but I feel that this is the solution, not just a solution. Further, I will be so bold as to maintain that this is the last-ditch, eleventh-hour chance for the mineral industry to solve its critical technical manpower shortage. I am not being facetious. I am convinced that there is only one solution--just as there is but one real cause of the problem. My conclusion 'is reinforced by countless talks of endless hours with people both in and out of the industry, with employers and employees, and with educators and students. While I claim no originality for the idea and have no pride of authorship, I am concerned that the industry hear and heed in time. It is quite unlikely that the mineral industry and the mineral engineering profession will willingly subscribe to my thesis or gladly buy my proposal. I am convinced, however, that it is the only course of action open to us, and the only course of action which will succeed.

Jan 1, 1967

By Dale R. Ralston, Roy E. Williams, Gerry V. Winter, George L. Bloomsburg

INTRODUCTION This manuscript is based on site inspections of five existing mines and the detailed analysis of two of the five. The detailed analysis and mathematical models of the two mines are presented herein in order to demonstrate a method of predicting mine water inflow using existing mines as a data base. Water management procedures were studied at all mines. Our original criteria for mine selection were that the mines be less than five years old and have an inflow rate in excess of 2000 gpm (7.6 m3/min). Background hydrologic and hydrogeologic data were required so that two of the mines could be used for our computer modeling experiments. Our original criteria proved to be difficult to meet. We contacted numerous mines via various sources. Many mines were unable to meet the cri¬teria stated or were not interested in cooperating with us. Therefore, we allowed some flexibility in the application of these criteria to satisfy our orig¬inal requirements. Although the visitations at all the mines are not discussed herein the characteristics of the two mines simulated are presented. These simulated mines consist of a uranium mine in New Mexico and a lead mine in Missouri. The mines and owners will remain anonymous by request. URANIUM MINE-CASE HISTORY NUMBER 1 Mine Location The uranium mine that we simulated is located in northwestern New Mexico. The ground surface at the uranium mine is at an elevation of approx¬imately 7000 ft (2134 m) above mean sea level. The climate is arid to semi-arid with an average annual precipitation of approximately 10 in. (25.4 cm) (John and West, 1963). Geologic Setting It is essential that a conceptual model of the stratigraphy, hydrostratigraphy, and structural geology of a mine site be developed prior to simulation by a mathematical model. If such a conceptual model is not developed prior to simulation major errors are difficult to avoid. The uranium mine we have simulated is located in the San Juan Basin (Fig. 68), which is a structural basin located in northwestern New Mexico and adjacent parts of Colorado, Arizona, and Utah. The sedimentary rocks present in the deepest part of the basin are nearly 15,000 ft (4572 m) thick (John and West, 1963). The regional dip of the sedimen¬tary rocks in the Grants area is generally northward toward the San Juan Basin; the regional attitude is modified locally by normal faults and folds (Hilbert, 1963). The rocks of interest in this area are sedimentary in origin and range in age from Penn¬sylvanian to Cretaceous. They rest on the Precam¬brian core of the Zuni Uplift. Associated intrusive and extrusive rocks are of Tertiary and Quaternary ages (Hilbert, 1963). The deepest sedimentary unit of interest at this mine site is the Morrison Formation as described by Hilbert (1963). The Morrison Formation con¬sists of three members in the general area of the mine site; the deepest member is the Recapture. The Recapture Member consists of alternating beds of gray sandstone and grayish red siltstone or mud¬stone with strata up to several feet in thickness. Only a few small deposits of uranium are contained within the Recapture Member. The Westwater Canyon Member overlies the Recapture Member of the Morrison Formation. The Westwater Can¬yon Member is approximately 150 ft (46 m) thick and consists of light brown to gray, poorly sorted, arkosic sandstone, and some interbedded gray mud¬stone. The Poison Canyon Formation denoted in subsequent discussions, tables, and figures was de¬termined to be a part of the Westwater Canyon Member. The separate connotation is used for the description of mining operations and hydraulic properties but a separate physical description is not included. This member of the Morrison Formation contains many large deposits of uranium. This is (some pages in this article are damaged)

Jan 1, 1986

By M. Rieber

Building on earlier work, an analysis relevant to international (Australasian) minerals trade is developed which accounts for both the impetus of globalization and national reaction or protection. At the firm level, integrated multinationals are contrasted with trade service providers. At the industry level tariff and, particularly, such barriers as quotas, standards, labor and environmental issues are explored. Specific areas examined include: location of both inventories and processing, sources of finance and currency risk, shipping availability and terms as related to processing level, residuals management or environmental controls, and “fair” labor standards. Intraregional rather than global trade is currently most likely.

Jan 1, 2002

By Christine M. Kammer

In 1852, six barrels of iron ore were loaded aboard the steamer Baltimore at Marquette, MI, after a trip by mule wagon from the nearby Cleveland Iron Mining Co. Shipped to Sault Ste. Marie, they were portaged around rapids and reloaded onto another ship for the final journey to the steel mills of Cleveland. In 1855, the same company-the predecessor of Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co.-chartered the brigantine Columbia to carry the first iron-ore cargo through the newly opened Soo locks. In 1981, about 2,190 iron-ore shipments in the form of taconite pellets were transported by water from US Great Lakes-ports. The total volume during the 284-day shipping season was 63 Mt (62 million It). Counting Canadian ship¬ments, almost 76 Mt (75 million It) of iron ore were moved on the lakes last year. The five Great Lakes-Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario-contain 20% of the world's fresh water. The area surrounding the lakes has 26% of the nation's populations, 47% of its steel production, and over 80% of the raw materials required to make steel. That figure includes 71% of the country's iron ore and 40% of its limestone. Only the availability of low-cost water transportation of raw materials has kept the heartland steel producers competitive. Iron ore shipped on the lakes originates in the Lake Superior district's Mesabi and Marquette iron ranges. Major mines and their principal partners are Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co.'s Empire, Republic, and Tilden; Armco and Republic's Reserve Mining Co.; Oglebay Norton Co.'s Eveleth; Hanna Mining Co.'s National and Butler; Inland Steel Co.'s Minorca; Pickands Mather & Co.'s Erie and Hibbing, the latter operated in conjunction with Bethlehem Steel Corp.; and US Steel Corp.'s Minntac. Pelletized ore products at these facilities is shipped through seven principal ports on the upper lakes: Duluth, Two Harbors, Silver Bay, and Taconite Harbor, MN; Superior, WI, and Marquette, MI, on Lake Superior; and Escanaba, MI, on Lake Michigan. In 1981, tonnage volumes ranged from 13.3 Mt (13.1 million It) shipped from Duluth, to Marquette's total of 5.4 Mt (5.3 million It). The ore docks, with two exceptions, are operated by railroads, most of which are owned by mining companies. Table 1 illustrates US iron-ore shipments in 1981. In the lower lakes, ore is discharged at dock facilities close to the great steel-producing centers of Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Buffalo. Between the mines and mills, lakes and connecting waterways form one of the country's most effective transportation systems. Each year, vessels on the Great Lakes transport about 181 Mt (200 million st) of bulk industrial and agricultural materials-a greater quantity at a lower cost than can be achieved by any other transportation mode. Major commodities in Great Lakes trade are iron ore, coal, grain, limestone, cement, sand, and petroleum products. About 125 US flag vessels serve this trade, among them 13 "1,000-

Jan 10, 1982

By Robert J. Timko, Edward D. Thimons, Robert L. Derick

In early June, 1986, a fire of unknown origin erupted in one of several main entries of a coal mine located in southwestern Colorado. The fire was aggressively fought with high- expansion foam. As a result of several strategic decisions, the fire appeared to be held in check. Unfortunately, sufficient quantities of foam were unavailable and as soon as the foam was depleted, control of the fire was lost. To prevent further damage and the possibility of an explosion, all entries to the mine were sealed. This paper recounts activities from the discovery of the fire to the initial reentry of the sealed mine including location of the fire, the decisions made to best combat it, and the steps taken to rapidly and securely seal the mine when this became necessary. The mine operator requested the Bureau's assistance in obtaining and analyzing mine fire gases taken from sampling ports placed through the mine seals. This report describes how samples were taken and what gases were analyzed. In addition, this work describes the initial exploration of the sealed mine by personnel using oxygen breathing apparatus.

Jan 1, 1987

By G. L. Mowrey

One critical element of the US Bureau of Mimes computer- assisted mining research program is the development of a reliable coal interface detection (CID) system. Several promising CID concepts currently being investigated by the Bureau include natural gamma radiation (NGR), vibration and passive infrared. To help establish which CID sensor technologies need to be developed for a given seam, coal and adjacent rock samples (immediate roof and floor) are being collected from selected major coal seams in the US and are being analyzed in terms of NGR and other geophysical measurements. This paper provides a brief overview of the Bureau's work in these CID areas.

Jan 1, 1992

By Hitch M.

Many mining wastes, especially those from the metal mining industry, have traditionally been treated as a matter of little or no value and in practice a cost burden. Some wastes, due to their reactivity characteristics, have emergent values that go beyond purely economic and into the environmentally beneficial realm. This paper discusses the changing paradigm of mine waste management. Such fundamental parameters such as cut off grade, and strip ratio, are positively impacted by the revaluation of waste rock material. Mine rock waste can now be seen as a commodity of value, similar to the underlying ore being mined and influences the economic performance of suitable projects. This valuable material can be used for industrial purposes including acid neutralization as well as the capture and long-term disposal of anthropogenic carbon dioxide. The Turnagain Nickel project, located in northern British Columbia serves as an example of how waste rock material can become an important matrix for carbon capture and sequestration and can benefit economically from it. By producing material that has emergent economic value as well as carbon capture and sequestration capabilities, the sequestration matrix producer is a beneficiary of new carbon credits that have a market value and is looked upon favourably by regulatory authorities and affected stakeholders.

Jan 1, 2010

By S. P. Singh

In order to understand the intricate nature of blast damage mechanism and to counter the associated problems, small scale blasting experiments were performed on hydrostone, concrete and granite. This was followed by a 2.4 m x 2.7 m (8'x 9') drifting operation in a quartzite quarry. Interior as well as exterior damage was assessed by different techniques. On the basis of the experimental results, the effect of explosive characteristics on the damage was examined.

Jan 1, 1992

By A. Mull, J. Weyer, J. Brune

"The “Reiche Zeche” mine in Freiberg, Germany, a 600-year-old lead-zinc-silver mine with extensive open mine workings, experiences severe ventilation losses due to leakage. Much air leaks into abandoned workings, decreasing the airflow available to active working areas. Usually, this leakage occurs in remote areas that lack transportation infrastructure like roadways or rail, making it difficult to haul construction materials to the sites to erect passive ventilation controls such as stoppings, regulators and seals. Transportation distances make it impractical to hand carry traditional construction materials, such as bricks and concrete. Alternative materials, such as brattice, foaming polymers, concrete canvas, and some innovative ventilation control designs have been investigated for this purpose. The suitability of the materials investigated depends on many factors including the pressure it can withstand, the ease of transportation, and workability. Impacts of mine water must be considered, as the Reiche Zeche is below drainage and experiences significant inflow of water. Researchers must consider the effects water inundation as well as how the stopping construction material reacts to being exposed to acidic mine water. INTRODUCTION Problem Statement Mining in the area around Freiberg, Germany began in the 12th century. The mine is used for research, mining engineering education, tourism and air conditioning for a local hospital. The first records of mining in the Reiche Zeche are from around 1384. Due to the strength and competency of the host rock, many of the oldest workings still stand and remain open today, although they may not be accessible. Reiche Zeche also connects to several other, closed mines in the area that are largely unmapped. This allows air to leak into neighboring mines, reducing the air available to ventilate to the working areas of Reiche Zeche. In order to improve ventilation efficiency, it is necessary to control the ventilation and reduce leakage by constructing seals, stoppings and regulators. A challenge with building traditional seals and stoppings in the Reiche Zeche is that the old workings lack transportation pathways or rails. Also, the lack of compressed air, water or electricity makes it difficult to operate power tools and drills. This means that construction materials must be hand carried – some over distances of several kilometers. Figure 1 shows a typical drift in the Reiche Zeche. Researchers investigated using lighter, more easily transportable materials including concrete canvas, expanding polyurethane and polyurea foams, and brattice. The applicability and utility of these materials depends on a variety of factors including the ventilation air pressure, chemical resistance to acidic and mineral-laden mine waters, ease of transport, and ease of construction. Stoppings and seals must be substantially constructed so that they remain tight and do not require maintenance. It is also important to consider the toxicity of the construction materials in case of a mine fire."

Jan 1, 2016

By Keith G. Papke

Industrial-mineral mining started early in the history of the State when salt was extensively mined for use in processing gold and silver ores, and borates were produced to meet most of the world's needs. After this start, industrial-mineral production grew slowly until World War II, mostly because of the remoteness of the State and the small population. Nevada now has a large and varied industrial-mineral industry. In 1983, 14 principal commodities were produced from 48 deposits; the total value of these materials was 168 million dollars. Nevada ranks first in domestic production of barite and magnesite; second in diatomite, gem stones, and lithium; third in fluorspar; and sixth in gypsum. Other materials produced are carbonate rocks, cement, clays, decorative and crushed stone, light- weight aggregate, perlite, pyritic soil additive, salt, sand and gravel, and silica. From 1978 through 1982 barite was the most important commodity; in 1983 diatomite surpassed barite in value of production. Most of the Nevada production consists of high-value commodities that are consumed out of the State. Approximately 430 significant deposits with 20 principal commodities are present in Nevada. This abundance can be attributed to the numerous and diverse geologic processes that have been operative. Seven major modes of origin have been identified: hydrothermal activity, sedimentation, combined hydrothermal activity-sedimentation, evaporative precipitation, brine formation, extrusion of igneous rocks, and alteration by ground water. The hydrothermal type accounted for 39 percent of the deposits, the combined hydrothermal-sedimentary type for 28 percent, and the sedimentary type for 13 percent. Nevada diatomite production is about 200,000 short tons/year valued at 30 million dollars. In 1984 three companies operated in Nevada producing diatomite from six open pits and processing it at four plants - one plant producing filter-grade materials and the others adsorbents and fillers. The diatomite occurs in about 60 areas, almost all in the western one-third of the State. The diatomites were deposited in long-lasting, fresh-water lakes in topographically closed valleys formed by basin-and-range faulting. About 85 percent of the barite mined in the United States is produced in Nevada. In 1981 the high point of production,-2.5 million short tons of bedded barite was produced from about 30 open-pit mines. About 120 significant bedded-barite deposits are known in Nevada; 38 of these have had past production of more than 25,000 short tons. The deposits are associated with marine siliceous rocks of Cambrian through Devonian age and occur in a zone about 300 miles long and 60 miles wide. Abundant evidence supports the theory that the bedded barite is of exhalative sedimentary origin.

Jan 1, 1987

By Ray E. Harris

A resource of 134,400,000,000 tons of minable trona and mixed trona and halite underlies an area of about 1,300 square miles vest of Green River, Wyoming (Culbertson, in preparation)(Figure 1). In 1982, the total domestic consumption of soda ash (refined trona) was 6,667,000 short tons (Kostick, 1983), approximately 90 percent of which came from Wyoming trona. This enormous resource occurs in the Wilkins Peak Member of the Creen River Formation (Eocene). The Green River Formation is derived from sediments deposited in a large lake (Lake Gosiute) that occupied the Green River Basin in south-western Wyoming 38-54 million years ago. The Wilkins Peak Member represents a restricted, evaporite-rich cycle of deposition during which time the trona deposits were formed. A total of 42 trona beds are known, of which 25 are of sufficient thickness and extent to be considered minable (Culbertson, in preparation).

Jan 1, 1984

By T. W. Martin

The use of conveyors in large, open pit mines and their drawbacks are discussed. Technological developments such as long distance conveyors capable of handling large rocks are explored. The development and testing by the Bureau of Mines of a prototype crib and cable conveyor for handling large rocks are discussed, and possible modifications of the concept for a production model are examined.

Jan 1, 1984

By J. C. Haptonstall

The Bismark Mine is located in northern Chihuahua, Mexico, 150 km (95 miles) southwest of Ciudad Juarez (Fig.1). The ore deposit was discovered in 1979 and was placed in production in 1992. The production rate is about 2.4 kt/d (2650 stpd) from an ore reserve of 8.5 Mt (9.3 million st). Grades currently average about 8% zinc, 0.5% lead, 0.2% copper and 50 g/t (1.46 oz/st) silver. Substantial inflows of water into the underground mine complicate the operation. Complex metallurgy poses another challenge for the operators. Bismark is a joint venture with 90% participation by Minas Penoles, SA de CR of Mexico City and 10% participation by Promociones Industriales Banamex, S A de C V (PIB S A) of Mexico City. Anew company, Minera Bismark, SA de CV was formed to operate the property. Cyprus Minerals was a 40% participant in the joint venture but, in early 1993, sold its share to Minas Penoles. The Bismark Mine is one of the largest new underground mining projects built in Mexico during the last 10 years. It is the country's fifth largest underground metal mine and provides about 1 % of the world's zinc supply at about 50 t/a (55,000 stpy). Bismark is a trackless operation with overall productivities of 7.6 t/manshift (8.4 st/manshift). The 2.4-kt/d (2650-stpd) concentrator started up in March 1992.

Jan 1, 1994

By Jan Krason

Introduction The South African Witwatersrand is the world's largest gold-bearing province and gold producing district. But the production capacity of the very big mines (Vaal Reef, Driefontein Cons., Western Holdings, Western Deep Levels, and others) is not as large as that of the Soviet Union's Muruntau gold mine. The Muruntau gold-bearing ore body was discovered in 1956-57, and has been in operation since that time. In the early 1970s, this mine produced 70 to 80 t/a (2.3 to 2.6 million oz per year) of gold. Within the last few years it has become the world's largest producing gold mine. Russian authors do not publish ore reserve or rate of production data. But it is very likely that the Muruntau mining complex, which involves several ore bodies, is currently producing about 143 t/a (4.6 million oz per year) of gold. The author has confirmed this by personal information from several knowledgeable Russian geologists. This amounts to one-half of

Jan 11, 1984