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By Harold D. Stevenson, Gerald G. Carlson

The Flow-Through Shares Program was set up by the Canadian Federal Government in 1978. While initial annual expenditures in flow-through shares was small, recognition of flow-through as a significant tax advantage combined with exploration successes, particularly in the gold sector, soon resulted in the majority of exploration dollars raised in Canada utilizing the flow-through share mechanism. What Are Flow-Through Shares As many exploration companies are non-taxable, they are not in a position to benefit from the tax deductions arising out of their exploration activities. Flow-through financing provides a mechanism for the exploration company to transfer these deductions to an investor. In addition to the deductions which an investor can apply against his personal income, the investor receives common shares in the exploration company (flow-through shares). To add to the attraction, the Federal government provides a 33 1/3 percent mark-up on qualifying expenses incurred by the exploration company, giving the investor a deduction of up to $1.33 for every $1.00 invested. By providing the investor with tax deductions in addition to the flow-through shares, flow through shares can often be sold at a premium to market which makes-the mechanism attractive to the exploration company as well. These shares are often sold through private placements and therefore have to be held for one year. The tax cost of the share is deemed to be ril, so the entire proceeds on disposal are

Jan 1, 1987

By M. Gershon

The article is an excellent one, providing a basis for the conduct of the major tasks in underground mine planning and scheduling. I object to only one word. Since that word is featured in the title, it is a strong objection. The word used erroneously is optimization. There is no optimization performed in the article. By definition, an optimization is an approach that yields the best of all possible solutions. We can limit this definition to its narrowest sense, the optimization techniques of operations research such as linear programming, or broaden it to include less sophisticated search procedures that find the best mine plan or schedule. No such claim is made in the article. No optimization of any kind is performed. The major tool used is a simulation, which, in truth, is probably more appropriate for this problem than any optimization. But simulation does not optimize. It only allows for quick evaluation of many options, leading to the selection of the best plan "of those tried," not "of all possible plans." This article, of course, is not the first mining paper to make this error. It seems that the word optimization is used more to impress people than to refer to any act of optimizing. It is used in a way that implies "try to optimize" or "come close to optimize," but not to really do it. It is usually appropriate to quietly ignore this error. But when Dr. Chatterjee, who has done so much good work in true optimization projects and whose work I have come to admire, makes such an error, it is time to publicly dispute it. Having discussed this very point with him in the past, I am sure that he will agree. If he can support this position in his response, perhaps people will start to listen and we can reduce the number of false claims of optimization. This should be easy for him in this case since the approach he used, simulation, is the more appropriate one anyway.

Jan 1, 1987

By D. A. Huggins

Column flotation is finding increasing use in the flotation of copper, molybdenum and other heavy metals and coal. Columns have proven operational, cost and metallurgical advantages which caused us to investigate their use in the proposed Escondida flowsheet. A comparative pilot plant test with 35 tons of ore showed that one column can replace three stages of cleaning and result in a significantly higher concentrate grade with no loss in recovery.

Jan 1, 1987

By T. Hackett

Western underground coal reserves are tremendous, but recovery in western seams can be poor because of mining problems caused by deep cover, geologic anomalies, and thick seams. For instance, many seams contain a rock parting too thick to be extracted economically with the coal. This forces the operator to mine the coal above or below the parting. Subsequently, the rock pressures induced by mining make the part left difficult or impossible to extract by standard mining methods. Because upper and lower parts of the seam are frequently of minable thickness, the presence of rock partings can result in a significant loss of coal. Given a longwall recovery of 60 pct and equal thickness for the two parts of the seam, overall recovery is reduced to less than 30 pct if one part only is mined. The coal left in place is unavailable to meet the nation's energy needs, or to produce revenues for coal companies or government. [ ] Multi-slice longwall mining has the potential to recover the portion of split seams that are now left in the mine. Using superimposed standard longwalls with chain pillars, overall recovery could be doubled, depending on panel and pillar widths. Using a combination of advancing and retreating longwalls in descending slices, overall recovery could be improved to more than 80 pct. Because of the potential for improved recovery, the Bureau of Mines is analyzing the ground control factors affecting multi-slice longwall under western mining conditions and is conducting field trials at a planned multi-slice operation.

Jan 1, 1987

By S. G. Malghan, W. H. Moyer

In reference to the section "Excess pyrite," the author discusses difficulties in separating chalcopyrite from pyrite. A technique does exist, and has been used commercially, for the flotation, separation, and recovery, if desired, of both chalcopyrite and pyrite. The method was described in Mining Engineering, March 1966, "An Improved Flotation Method for Cornwall Sulfides." While it was not used on a porphyry copper ore, it was used on a chalcopyrite- pyrite-containing ore and might well have application. Both sulfides, chalcopyrite and pyrite, were floated simultaneously using xanthate as a collector and MIBC frother to produce a cleaned sulfide product. This concentrate was then thickened and conditioned at high solids with aeration and lime to a pH above 12.0 for a period of 1.5 to 2 hr. A supplemental suppressant, such as cyanide, could be used if necessary to sharpen the subsequent separation; however, it was not required at Cornwall. The conditioned sulfides were floated with two stages of cleaning to produce a high- grade chalcopyrite froth product and a pyrite sink product barren in copper. The separation at Cornwall gave a 28.6% Cu grade chalcopyrite product and a pyrite analyzing 0.06% Cu. A desliming step on the raw ore initially used at Cornwall for a period of time was later discontinued. Advantages to be found in using a strong sulfide collector, such as a xanthate, is the rapid flotation it induces and, generally, an ability to float at a coarser grind. A following regrind circuit could be used to give maximum liberation and produce a clean sulfide concentration. The "differential" separation is concerned primarily with grade and with assuring a barren pyrite for maximum recovery.

Jan 1, 1987

By Hans Hamrin

Three drill-blast cycles of 3.1 m advance achieved in one working shift of 7.5 hours at the Holsfjorden Tunnel project in Norway. The tunnel, 5235 m long, with a cross section of 8.6 m2, was completed several months ahead of schedule. This remarkable performance was achieved by a crew of 16 men, using machines specially designed for small tunnel excavation. The integration of drilling and charging into one unit, mucking and transport in another, reduced non-productive time considerably. The average cycle time of 140 min made it possible to complete three rounds in one 7.5 hours shift.

Jan 1, 1987

By T. C. Rao

The quantum of coal fines below 6 mm in run-of-mine (ROM) coal has been increasing due to progressive mechanization of mining methods which has created a substantial incentive, worldwide, to develop suitable fine coal beneficiation techniques. The majority of the efforts have been directed toward reduction in ash/sulfur contents in clean coal. The beneficiation techniques may be broadly grouped as those based on specific gravity and surface property. The processes, which use heavy medium cyclone, water-only cyclone, concentrating tables, and spirals, belong to the former group while the latter group encompasses froth flotation, column flotation, oleo- flotation, and oil agglomeration. In almost all the gravity based techniques, it has been noted that a classification step prior to beneficiation is essential for effective treatment. In general, the effect of design and process variables on the performance of these units and also the quantification of the processes have been the main areas of research and development. In froth flotation, efforts throughout the world have been mainly to understand the effect of variables and to optimize the process. Quantification of the process has been attempted through kinetic studies and mathematical modeling. The efforts have led to the development of new reagents, machine designs, and flowsheets for a specified objective. The attempts so far with the column flotation and oleoflotation processes have indicated a great potential. Extensive R&D efforts are in progress to understand as well as to commercialize the processes. The efforts in the oil agglomeration process have been toward substantiating the inherent merits of the process by developing cheaper bridging liquids and technology to recover and reuse the oil to make the process commercially viable. Modeling of the process has also been attempted to predict the yield and size distribution of the agglomerates. This paper reviews and summarizes the recent developments in the science and technology of fine coal beneficiation processes. The current trends in R%D efforts for these processes are also highlighted.

Jan 1, 1987

By Keith G. Wallace, Gary K. Rogers

As a supplement to an analysis involving methodologies for the estimation of airflow resistance in shafts used for both ventilation and hoisting, a detailed shaft characterization survey was distributed worldwide. The survey provided detailed information which enabled verification of recommended velocities and established limitations on fill factors and relative velocities. This paper evaluates the information obtained for 37 shafts and presents a statistical evaluation of the results. Apart from airflow rates, conveyance rates, and physical characteristics, qualitative information regarding means of conveyance stability and velocity control techniques at unloading and loading points are also presented. Calculations of fill coefficient, free area velocity, and most importantly, relative velocity between the airflow and hoist, are conducted. These results are presented by frequency diagrams which illustrate the trends, as well as provide limitations for these parameters. The data illustrates that, commonly, the fill coefficient for two or more conveyances, does not exceed 30 %. A limit of 50% is suggested for a single conveyance shaft. A recommended free area velocity of 10 m/s (1,970 ft/min) for combined ventilation and hoisting shafts, is sup- ported by these results. Relative velocities of 30 m/s (5,905 ft/min) are most frequent and 50 m/s (9,840 ft/min) being a practical maximum.

Jan 1, 1987

By Thomas H. Koenning, William E. Bruce

The importance and complexity of the ventilation systems in many underground coal mines necessitates the use of digital computers to model the ventilation networks. The modeling procedures used by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) utilize the MSHA-modified Penn State computer program. The basic techniques used by MSHA have been described in detail in NESA (now MSHA) Informational Reports 1066 and 1183 (1. 2). Two basic methods are utilized for modeling underground mine ventilation systems. The first modeling method is the use of actual air-flow, pressure, and fan-performance data acquired during a full air-pressure, air-quantity ventilation survey to develop a mathematical model of the ventilation system. The second modeling method is the design of a ventilation system using data obtained from calculation, from past experience, or from technical literature. The latter method would typically be used to design a ventilation network prior to developing a new mine. Regardless of which method is used for modeling, there is a need to know, or to calculate, appropriate resistance values to be used for airways and for the various ventilation control structures. Such data is typically difficult to obtain and this report is an attempt to summarize typical resistance values which may be used in designing ventilation networks for new mines or in simulating proposed system changes in existing mines. Illustrations are presented to show where some of the resistances typically are located and how they are modeled in mine ventilation net- works.

Jan 1, 1987

By P. Bottomley, M. Matthews

Maintaining an acceptable thermal environment in South African gold mines becomes increasingly difficult as mining progresses to greater depths where higher virgin rock temperatures are encountered. Current environmental practice offsets the resulting high heat loads by installing large refrigeration plants. However, with the continued escalation of refrigeration costs, it has become necessary to examine other methods for economically combatting the underground heat load. The Chamber of Mines Research Organization has recently been pursuing a programme to devise methods of reducing the flow of heat into underground workings at source. Although there are several sources of heat (such as machinery, men, and explosives), the most significant is that from the rock mass surrounding the workings (Bluhm et al., 1986a). The main thrust of the work has therefore been directed at predicting and devising methods of reducing this heat source. A great deal of theoretical work has been carried out on the prediction of underground heat flow. From a review of this work (Bluhm et al., 1986b) it became apparent that there are two major aspects which require attention, namely algorithms for predicting the heat flow around the advancing stope face, and a correlation of the theoretical work with accurate empirical data. In order to remedy this situation, new theoretical models have been developed (von Glehn and Bluhm, 1986), and heat flow measurements have been made in both a conventional stope (Bluhm et al, 1986a) and in a backfilled stope (Matthews u., 1987). A number of methods for reducing rock heat flow are being examined. These include the insulation of intake airways (Bottomley, 1985 ), backfilling with waste material of the worked out areas, and alternative approaches to the design of mining layouts, the mining method, and the choice of cooling strategy. This paper highlights the heat load reductions that can be achieved by backfilling the worked-out areas and by adopting concentrated mining. The first part of this paper summarizes the results of the measurements obtained in the conventional and backfilled stopes. The theoretical models are then described and comparisons are made with the measured values.

Jan 1, 1987

By W. S. Fyfe

Gold is mobilized or made soluble under all crustal conditions given appropriate fluid chemistry with molecules which complex gold. In the surface environment chloride, thiosulphate and a host of organics may mobilize gold. In the epithermal range bisulphide appears effective as shown by the classic studies in the Taupo volcanic zone of New Zealand. In the high grade metamorphic to igneous ranges little is know but it appears that gas molecules in the system CO2 -CO-H20-S-C1 can do the job. Precipitation may occur by changes in P-T-EL-pH or boiling where such changes influence the liquid concentration. Of the known regimes information is good for epithermal systems, poor for surface lateritic environments, inadequate for high-T systems. Gold is often concentrated in bio-systems both living and dead. The influence of biosystems is little appreciated. There is a great potential for the discovery of new types of gold deposits and in particular, gold in weathering environments, gold in very high-T environments, gold in strike-slip faults and thrust regimes, and gold as a by-product in materials like coal and other organic debris. By the year 2500 we may find our noble metal resources in the asteroids.

Jan 1, 1987

By Mark E. Smith, Gerald J. Gierszewski

Introduction The purpose of this paper is to present a procedure used by the authors for evaluating and designing soil liner systems. This method is particularly valuable in evaluating various treatment schemes for chemically amended soil liners. A tabulation of laboratory test results on various soil types are presented to quantify the effectiveness of certain treatments. A typical liner design program includes developing and proving soil borrow sources, designing the cross-section of the liner system, developing construction specifications, and providing construction services to ensure the intended product is achieved. Material Source Development The first step in designing a soil liner is to identify and evaluate suitable borrow sources within an economical haulage range. This is best done in a two step approach: a reconnaissance level investigation to identify target areas and a detailed evaluation of those targets. Reconnaissance: The goal of the preliminary investigation is to locate potential borrow sources for liner quality soils. This includes all natural materials which can be compacted, chemically treated, or otherwise amended to yield an installed permeability at or below some target value. This requires utilization of all available data sources: Soil Conservation Service, BLM, aerial photos, USGS geologic maps, and project geologist records. The goal at this stage is to locate shallow deposits of favorable soil types. The Unified Soil Classification System provides an excellent first pass grouping. Clays, clayey sands and silts are the most favorable soil types, although silty sands and occasionally clayey gravels can make excellent liners, and are often amenable to chemical modification. The lowest permeabilities are generally achieved with CH, CL and MH soils. Once preliminary targets have been identified using visual examination, laboratory classification tests should be performed to further refine the selection. Testing at this stage should include gradation, plasticity and hydrometer analyses. Additionally, "preg-rob" testing should be done as early as practical. Preg-rob is a phenomenon where gold or silver ions in solution associate with the clay, or other, minerals. When this occurs, a portion of the gold or silver leached from the ore is actually tied-up by the clay and thus a reduces recovery. Testing for this consists of agitating a small sample of the soil in a solution containing dissolved gold or silver, preferably of similar chemical make-up as the solution which will contact the actual liner. The solution and soil are assayed before and after agitation to determine loss to the clay. A reliable estimate of the hydraulic conductivity, commonly referred to as permeability, can be developed from the D10 value by the use of Hezen's formula: K = 100 (D1012 This relationship is limited to soils where the finer particles do not move due to the force of flowing water (i.e.: "hydrodynamic stabilitym)(1). Additionally, the effect of platty particles on permeability is not as predictable as the effect of equidimensional particles. D10 is the sieve opening size at which 10% of the material is finer. Plasticity is also important from several standpoints. Constructability is directly related to plasticity. Very plastic clays and non-plastic silts both tend to be difficult soils, while medium plastic clays and clayey sands are generally very desirable. Post construction performance is also related to plasticity (e.g. swelling, shrinkage cracking, frost heave, etc.). Additionally, low plasticity silts and silty sands generally do not respond well to chemical amendment. Source Development: The result of the reconnaissance evaluation should be an estimate of the relative probability of developing a suitable borrow source within an economical haul distance. Of course, "economical distance" depends on the degree of handling and treatment the borrow material requires, as well as the cost of synthetic alternatives. The purpose of the detailed investigation is to prove out quantity and quality of material sources, and determine design parameters such as degree of compaction, mixing, treatment and thickness of liner. The emphasis of the testing program should be permeability and strength. Strength becomes increasingly important as the slope of the liner and the height of the heap increase. Permeability testing should evaluate the effects of compaction, water content, mixing and chemical treatment where appropriate. The effects compaction and water content during compaction have on

Jan 1, 1987

By J. B. Gwiazda

In designing mine workings and adequate roof supports, it is indispensable to determine properties of the strata surrounding the workings. The proper selection of roof supports is based, before everything else, on a thorough knowledge of the roof rock strength, especially tensile strength. This parameter is a vital factor in the delamination of roof rocks and eventual cave-in. It is also important to know the properties of the floor on which the roof supports are set. While driving galleries, it is essential to know beforehand the strength of rocks that will be encountered in the near future during the work. The devices described will help to obtain this information.

Jan 1, 1987

By G. E. Erdman

The total attitude of the industrial minerals producing company is a most important factor in how they regard quality control, technical support for their customers, and procedures used in mining their minerals products. This philosophy of the producing organization directs their action along certain courses. For instance, one producer might see itself as a mining company with its major goal mining efficiency to make it exceedingly price competitive in the market place. Another producer might see itself as a wide spectrum multi-mineral producer that furnishes a reputation for a complete line of products. Another producer might see itself as a specialist in one specific industrial mineral and bet its whole bankroll on providing the very best of quality with the goal of becoming the largest producer of the mineral commodity. Each perception can have a different impact upon the producer's operations and its regard for quality control. Minerals Being Produced The specific markets being served will have their own influence on how mineral product quality is regarded. Ceramic raw materials, for instance, have a very low tolerance for iron which is the cause of low fired color. Thus, industrial minerals for use in glass and ceramic markets must be won from deposits with a very low iron content. A high iron silica sand might be sold to a manufacturer of good old beer bottles. That is a solution to one particular quality facet, but eliminates selling to a significant market in clear glass, porcelain enamel, ceramics whiteware bodies and hobby glazes. Thus, there is a need for sound research in the industries expected to be served before the product is brought to market.

Jan 1, 1987

By Jim Dunn

For decades many of us who are associated with the mineral industry have tried to show the public its economic and strategic importance. Some of the mineral industry's proponents have been politically powerful figures and have been widely quoted. Yet, as measured by public opinion, legislative support, or almost any other standard, our efforts have been inadequate. It is apparent that a set of environmental beliefs that discredit industry, firmly held by a number of idealistic persons, has had wider coverage in the media and in schools than has the mineral industry's message. Although the fervor of our idealistic friends is often unfounded and, their stands unscientific, they must be considered seriously. Unless we address the issues in terms the idealists will understand, the mineral industry will have little influence on them or on the general public. A. striking thing is that, quite often, translation of idealists' views into action has been counterproductive. The reason is obvious. Excessive amounts of money and energy have been spent on relatively minor problems. The common result is that larger problems have been created. It may be possible to help anti-industry idealists understand their own dependence on minerals, and thus render their views more realistic, if they are shown more effective ways to reach their stated goals. If those goals can be shown to be held in common by all sensitive human beings -- including those in business and industry - the dialogue becomes one of how to achieve common ends. Individual mining companies acting by themselves have little possibility of success, and companies working in unison through trade associations have not been successful. Further, it is unlikely that industry in general can be successful in changing minds unless it seeks outside help. But friends among those who influence public opinion have been hard to find. Historically, help from media has proven difficult to get. Nor has enough help from educators been forthcoming. Yet, a war is going on in the technological, philosophical, and political trenches, even though much of the public is not aware of it. For the first time in years, there is row a significant and growing number of eloquent and brilliant thinkers on the side of free enterprise and industry, many of them environmentalists, but without the anti-industry mind-set. They have had remarkably little help from the private sector or even from the present administration. Industry may do far more for itself in the long run by encouraging these brave but bruised individuals and their organizations than by trying to work alone. These friends of free enterprise are working against a seemingly stacked deck relative to much of the media, the bureaucracy, and the educational system. However, despite their problems, their success to date has been remarkable. With more cooperation from industry they should do even better.

Jan 1, 1987

By Pierre Mousset-Jones, Felipe Calizaya, Malcolm J. McPherson

The algorithm presented in this study determines the combination of fans that provide all working districts of a mine with predefined airflows at the minimum operating cost. It is based on an existing ventilation simulator, VNETPC, and a set of linear equations associating fan pressures and the added resistance of regulators. Two assumptions are undertaken: (1) fan locations are predetermined and (2) the number of working districts is equal to or greater than the number of fans. By means of this algorithm, the optimal solution to an n fan ventilation system may be found after n + 1 simulation runs.

Jan 1, 1987

By R. Hogg, T. F. Dumm

Procedures for particle size analysis on respirable dust from coal mines have been evaluated. Using respirable dusts dispersed in a laboratory dust chamber, size distributions measured using cascade impactors have been com- pared with the results of a variety of laboratory sizing methods performed on samples collected on filters placed side-by-side with the impactors. The laboratory techniques included centrifugal sedimentation, laser diffraction/scattering and automatic particle counting. The general agreement among the various methods was very good, with systematic differences which can be attributed to the different definitions of size used. Simple conversion factors have been obtained which can be used to transform the laboratory data to equivalent aerodynamic sizes. Similar comparisons have been made on samples collected in underground coal mines. Again, the results are in quite good agreement although small discrepancies were observed in some cases. These have been attributed to some degree of agglomeration in the airborne dust, leading to slightly coarser apparent distributions in the impactor samples.

Jan 1, 1987

By J-Y Chen

China was once deficient in nickel and almost totally reliant on imports for its domestic needs, supplies mainly coming from Canada since the ending of imports from the U.S.S.R. in early 1960's. However, the discovery of the huge nickel/copper sulphide deposit in Jin Chuan, Gansu Province of northwestern China in late 1950's and its development and construction through the 1960's and 19701s, have much improved China's domestic nickel position. In 1985. China's nickel production has exceeded 27.000 tons, compared with only 7,000 tons in 1977. Today, Jin Chuan Nonferrous Metals Company operates two underground mines and a small open- pit; owns China's largest reserves of nickel and platinum, and the second largest reserves of copper and cobalt; and has become the most important subsidiary of China National Nonferrous Metals Industry Corporation (CNNC) which was established in April 1983. The Jin Chuan nickel-copper mines are located in Jin Chang City, Gansu Province, 1,700 km west of Beijing in the People's Republic of China (Figure 1). It is believed that Jin Chuan mines have the second largest nickel reserves in the world, after Sudbury basin, Canada. The deposits are situated on the north slope of the Longshu Mountains, 50 km north of Jin Chang City, and border on the southmost edge of the Gobi Desert plateau. The deposits were discovered in 1958. The total strike length of mineralized zones was approximately 6.5 km long, which was divided into four mining areas by faults (Figure 2). The Longshu underground mine of No. 1 mining area began development in 1959, with full ore production capacity of 1,000 TPD. The open-pit, also in No. 1 mining area, which was brought into operation in 1966 with ore output of 5,500 TPD, was closed down in 1982. The East Extension of the open-pit was put into operation in 1983; present production capacity is about 2,200 TPD. Nickel production of Jin Chuan mines in recent years, and production capacity of each mining operation, are shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Jan 1, 1987

By A. D. S. Gillies

The provision of a suitable working environment in deep level mines requires the accurate prediction of the ventilation heat load. Mathematical models for predicting strata heat load have been under development since the 1930's and 1940's. Computer models for predicting this and other mine heat sources have been developed and refined over the last 20 years. Some empirical studies have occurred and there is an increased emphasis on the importance of underground studies. Any theoretically or empirically determined predictive method must of necessity make assumptions. Underground space with its irregular configurations and rough wall surfaces cannot be described by simple mathematical expressions. Some heat loads, such as machinery, may occur intermittently while others such as the influence of water evaporation are very difficult to quantify accurately. Current popular models for predicting mine heat load have been surveyed. In testing some of these it is often found that each estimates significantly different quantitative values for the expected load in a particular underground space under study. These differences are explained by the assumptions, simplifications and omissions implicit in each of these models. It would be easier to estimate conditions at any point if heat flow into mine air passageways could be described by simple equations with associated statistically-based confidence ranges. Use of probability distributions to indicate confidence ranges allows any heat level estimate to be expressed as a range of values with limits for maximum and minimum expected values. This approach allows many of the limitations of the popular predictive models to be overcome. A heat prediction method using this approach has been developed based on Monte Carlo simulation and tested on mine data from a number of operations. Heat flow levels which can be predicted by simple equations supported by probability distributions allow the engineer flexibility in adjusting a predictive model to the underground characteristics appropriate to the mine site under study. The influence of all heat sources present in the mine opening must be included. Prediction methods must be updated as mining systems and machinery change with time. Heat sources interact with one another and the system must therefore be understood in its entirety.

Jan 1, 1987

By H. V. Alminas

The U.S. Virgin Islands consist of three major islands (St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix) and some 50 smaller islands that are located primarily along the coasts of St. Thomas and St. John. St. Croix, the largest of the islands, is located approximately 160 km south-southeast of San Juan, Puerto Rico and is about 218 km in area (Fig. 1). St. Thomas, the second largest island is located 64 km east of Puerto Rico and incorporates approximately 77 km2. St. John is located immediately to the east of St. Thomas and incorporates approximately 49 km2. The climate in the U.S. Virgin Islands is maritime tropical. The average annual rainfall at higher elevations is 127-152 cm and at lower elevations 51-76 cm. There is no well-defined wet or dry season. Temperatures generally average in the 80's (F°) with only a 5°-7° F variation throughout the year.

Jan 1, 1987