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By Kristine Bruce Wanderley, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa, Jorge A. Soares Tenório

Mining of nickel ores generates large volumes of waste that must be removed in order to eliminate water contamination and reduce environmental impacts created by waste barriers. In this context, the need for innovations concerning the recovery of magnesium present in the liquor produced by the leaching of nickel laterite with sulfuric acid arises. Therefore, this work aims to develop a study regarding the crystallization of magnesium from a synthetic liquor solution using a batch autoclave system at high temperature. Agitation speed was kept constant at 1000 rpm throughout the 3 h of batch reaction for temperatures of 230 and 200 °C. Aliquots taken at each hour were analyzed by ion chromatography to measure magnesium concentration. The highest magnesium removal was observed for temperature 230 °C. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (EDS-SEM) analysis proved that the product formed was magnesium sulphate monohydrate crystals. Thermogravimetric analysis coupled with a mass spectrometer was used for the evaluation of the thermal stability of magnesium sulphate monohydrate. It was found that MgO and SO2 were formed by the decomposition of the salt at 1100 °C.

Mar 1, 2017

By Sun Ying, Zhang Jing, Li Qiu-ju, Wang Yan-ze

Copper smelter slag was leached using sulphuric acid solutions under atmospheric conditions. Base on the composition and phase of copper slag, the effect of the concentration of sulfuric acid and leaching temperature to the leaching growth rate of Fe, Cu, Co and Ni in the copper slag were investigated in this paper. Simultaneously, the influence of sulfuric acid concentration, leaching time, leaching temperature and the amount of sulfuric acid (solid-liquid ratio) to the leaching rate of these metal elements were researched. Experimental results showed that: with the increasing temperature, the dissolution rates of the metals elements increased first and then decreased. Due to the influence of silica gel which was obtained in beginning of leaching, the higher the concentration of sulfuric acid is not conducive to dissolution of the valuable metal elements. The dissolution degree of Fe, Cu, Co and Ni were 92.83% 96.76% 93.62% and 63.41% respectively.

Jan 1, 2016

By Francois Barthelat, Sam Goroshin, David Frost, Alexander Cappozi, Atefeh Nabavi

"In this study, a novel chromium–chromium sulfide cermet was produced by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS). Conventional techniques for manufacturing metal sulfides are complex, environmentally harmful, and not suitable for producing complex-shape articles. To overcome these disadvantages, a new method for the preparation of the metal-sulfur precursor charge is proposed, which can be described as reactive casting. The first cermet samples produced with the SHS process were found to be very porous, brittle, and have low mechanical strength. The possible sources for the generation of porosity were identified and analyzed and the process for manufacturing the cermet was modified. By improving the manufacturing process, the porosity inside the produced cermets was reduced from 70% to 12%.IntroductionMetal sulfide composites are in high demand in the chemical, metallurgical, and electrical industries because of their valuable characteristics such as hardness, semi-conductivity, electroluminescence, infrared transparency and catalytic properties. Current manufacturing methods for metal sulfides usually involve one of two different principal methods, including a complex multistage wet chemical process involving the precipitation of the corresponding salts from an aqueous solution with hydrogen sulfide, or hot sintering of the respective elemental reactant powders in a resistive furnace in a high-pressure inert or hydrogen-sulfide atmosphere [1, 2]. These conventional methods for synthesizing ceramic metal composites are complex, extremely time and energy consuming, environmentally harmful, and rarely able to manufacture articles with complex shapes. Therefore, in order to overcome these disadvantages, self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) was considered as an alternative method that offers significant improvements over the traditional cermet manufacturing methods [3]. SHS, which is a relatively new and attractive method for producing a wide range of advanced materials, is based on the self-sustaining feature of the highly exothermic reactions of the reactants. The SHS process results in high product purity, since the high temperatures generatedin the reaction cause any impurities to volatilize [4, 5]. SHS has low energy consumption and doesn’t require an external energy source and complex equipment, and it is self-contained [1, 5]. Since combustion synthesis has low power requirements, it is one of the few methods of materials synthesis that is feasible in outer space. Also, the process has a low cost and is capable of directly synthesizing articles with the desired shape, size and structure [5, 6]. The chemical reactions associated with SHS are typically completed in a few seconds leading to the formation of the condensed product. The high reaction rates and relatively rapid cooling in SHS reactions can avoid undesirable grain growth in products which often occurs with the conventional sintering method [3, 5, 7]. The traditional method for sample preparation in the SHS technique is to compact the reactant mixture powders in a steel die by a press to a typical density of about 80% of the theoretical maximum value, before igniting the mixture [8]. This method requires a large compression force to increase the green density and to minimize any pores in the green compact. To overcome these disadvantages, a new method for the preparation of the precursor charge in metal-sulfur by SHS is proposed which can be described as melt casting of a reactive mixture, or reactive casting in short."

Jan 1, 2012

By Jewel Gomes

Green rust is an important intermediate in oxidative transformation of Fe(II) phase. This unstable compound contains a mixture of ferrous and ferric hydroxides that belong to a family of minerals known as layered double hydroxides (LDH). Its general formula is [FeII(6-x) FeIIIx (OH)12]x+[Ax/n-*yH2O] x-, where A is an n-valent anion mainly Cl-, CO3-2 and SO4-2, and in which either the bivalent or the trivalent iron can be replaced for other trivalent or bivalent metal ions. It was first identified as corrosion product, later in soils as a product of interactions between microbes and metals in soils. Due to its high reactivity, it is used in the reduction of organic and inorganic compounds, As removal, and the treatment of acid mine drainage. In this paper, we described the method of electrochemical generation of green rust, its characterization by XRD, SEM and FT-IR, and its implications to electrocoagulation.

Jan 1, 2009

By Veneta Groudeva

A pyritic ore containing zinc, lead and copper as? the relevant primary sulfide minerals, .as well as gold and silver finely disseminated in the sulfide matrix, was? leached in percolation columns. Each column contained 30 kg of ore crushed to minus 10 mm. Firstly, zinc and copper were efficiently leached by means of chemolithothrophic bacteria? in acidic sulfate bearing medium. Zinc was leached more rapidly than copper but the final extractions of these metals were similar (about 75% in 300 days). A part of the galena was oxidized to the. insoluble lead sulfate during the leaching. The pyr:ite was, however, relatively slightly attacked. The ore was then leached by means of FeC11 - HCl solutions both in the presence and in the absence of bacteria to solubilize the lead. The chemolithotrophic bacteria grew in media containing both chloride and sulfat~ ions and maintained a high ferric to ferrous ion ratio in the percoiating solutions. The chemical leaching was, however, more efficient since ft was possible to carry it out at higher chloride ion concentrations. About 10% of the lead was leached in this way in 90 days. Finally, the ore was leached by thiourea in the presence of a gold-oxidant (oxone) to extract the gold and silver. Over 60% of the gold and over 55% of the silver were extracted from the ore in 150 days, while. the extractions of these precious metals from an untreated ore sample were lower than 25%.

Jan 1, 1991

By Jose Bengoa

Low metal prices and environmental restrictions are always a challenge for copper smelters operation and its productivity. Thus, in order to reduce production costs and control gas emissions, improvements of the Teniente Converter (CT) operation were made at 110 Smelter Plant of Southern Peru Copper Co" 110, Peru, and the main objective was to increase its capacity for smelting copper concentrates without affecting normal operation, The present work eorresponds to a recent study conducted during the normal industrial operation of the Teniente Converter in this plant and, it shows the effect of increasing air oxygen enrichment from 28 to 34% on its productivity. The results show an increasing of concentrate smelting rate from 800 to 1370 tpd and hence a notorious improving in copper production, and practically no effect on the refractory consumption. The increment of the concentrate throughput, increases also the SO2 concentration and the sulfuric acid production, showing the effort done by this operation in order to accomplish the environmental Peruvian regulation,

Jan 1, 2003

By Jose Bengoa

Low metal prices and environmental restrictions are always a challenge for copper smelters operation and its productivity. Thus, in order to reduce production costs and control gas emissions, improvements of the Teniente Converter (CT) operation were made at 110 Smelter Plant of Southern Peru Copper Co., 110, Peru, and the main objective was to increase its capacity for smelting copper concentrates without affecting normal operation. The present work corresponds to a recent study conducted during the normal industrial operation of the Teniente Converter in this plant and, it shows the effect of increasing air oxygen enrichment from 28 to 34% on its productivity. The results show an increasing of concentrate smelting rate from 800 to 1370 tpd and hence a notorious improving in copper production, and practically no effect on the refractory consumption. The increment of the concentrate throughput, increases also the SO2 concentration and the sulfuric acid production, showing the effort done by this operation in order to accomplish the environmental Peruvian regulation.

Jan 1, 2003

By J. T. I. Poijärvi

The smelter off-gas cleaning and the weak acid treatment at Outokumpu Harjavalta Metals Oy are presented and described in this paper. The smelter consists of the copper and nickel smelters and the acid plant of three separate acid plants two of which are double contact and one single plant and of one liquid sulphur dioxide plant. The preliminary cooling and flue dust separation of the smelter off-gases from the copper and nickel flash smelting furnaces and converters in the waste heat boilers and in the hot electrostatic precipitators are described. The final cooling and cleaning of the gases in the scrubbers at the sulphuric acid plant and the treatment of the weak acid in the vacuum and in the submerged combustion evaporators for the removal of impurities are pre¬sented as well as the treatment of the condensates from the evaporators. The attention is paid to the generation of sulphur trioxide in the smelter off-gas and to the treatment of that in the weak acid bleed-off and to the utilization of the treated acid.

Jan 1, 1992

By Andrew Campbell, Michael Reed

"WorleyParsons has used Discrete Event Simulation methods in conjunction with more traditional process models to assess the performance of copper smelting operations. This work was performed to determine the plant capacities and suitability of proposed debottlenecking options including accounting for the planned and unplanned (breakdowns) shutdowns in the various parts of the plant and supply chain. This paper outlines the methods used along with demonstrating the benefits of selecting a feasible option and minimizing capital and operating costs.IntroductionTraditionally for de bottlenecking studies of smelters and other process plants, a mass balance is performed based on continuous operating rates and expected operating hours. Smelters have several points of failure that will restrict, if not take the entire plant offline. By using a more detailed model, validated against plant experience, bottlenecks can be demonstrated and strategies to remove them to increase plant availability and economic.The modeling simulates the plant performance in real time, and by performing enough simulation the expected long run performance of the plant can be estimated. The models have been built using ExtendSim which is a powerful Discrete Event Simulation software package that is ideally suited to the batch and semi-batch processes and events that occur within smelter operating environments. The value of performing this work is that the operational performance of the plant can be assessed ensuring production targets are met, without using excessive capital outlay."

Jan 1, 2013

By Heng Yi

The salt lake brines that lithium is extracted from have high chloride levels making the brine very corrosive to stainless steel extraction column internals. This is a significant problem in column scale-up to industrial production. Two types of corrosion-resistant ceramic internals, the hybrid ceramic internal and ceramic plate, were designed and tested under pilot conditions for future industrial application in this field. The hydrodynamic results (Yi et al. Ind Eng Chem Res 56 (4):999–1007 (2016), [1]) show that holdup of hybrid ceramic internal is higher than that of ceramic plate by around 50%, while Sauter mean diameter when using the hybrid ceramic internal is smaller than when using the ceramic plate by around 30%. This results in a larger mass transfer area, hence better mass transfer efficiency for the hybrid ceramic internal. Axial dispersion and mass transfer parameters are also examined (Yi et al. Ind Eng Chem Res 56(11):2049–3058 (2017), [2]). The results show that the column with hybrid ceramic internals has 50% lower axial dispersion coefficient and 50% higher mass transfer coefficient, leading to higher mass transfer efficiency. The transfer unit height of the column using hybrid ceramic internals can be as low as 0.2 m, showing very good efficiency. This is promising for near-future applications. Two-phase computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models have been developed for the two columns with ANSYS FLUENT commercial software. CFD successfully predicts the higher holdup and lower axial dispersion coefficients for the hybrid sieve plate pulsed column as measured in the experiments, and the cause for the difference in performance has been explained with information from CFD.

By Florian Kongoli

"Lime ferrite" slag with limited silica content has proven to be a valuable choice in the modem processes of copper smelting and converting due to several advantages that this slag offers compared to classical silicate slags. Nevertheless the liquidus surface of this slag has been experimentally measured only at low oxygen potentials such as in equilibrium with iron or near it and in air. Although most of the smelting and converting processes that use this slag occur at intermediate oxygen potentials, the liquidus surface of this slag is not known at these conditions and the effect of oxygen potential and silica has not been correctly understood. This has brought some confusion in literature as well as in the industrial practice. In this work the liquidus surface of the calcium ferrite slags has been quantified by the means of a new thermophysicochemical model and a new type of liquidus surface diagrams which are very convenient for any industrial process that uses calcium ferrite slags. These diagrams can be easily used to select the lowest liquidus temperature of calcium ferrite slags at a minimum cost and can help design several fluxing strategies in copper smelting and converting processes. The effect of the oxygen potential and silica is also quantified and important industrially related conclusions are drawn.

Jan 1, 2003

By Florian Kongoli

"Lime ferrite" slag with limited silica content has proven to be a valuable choice in the modem processes of copper smelting and converting due to several advantages that this slag offers compared to classical silicate slags. Nevertheless the liquidus surface of this slag has been experimentally measured only at low oxygen potentials such as in equilibrium with iron or hear it and in air. Although most of the smelting and converting processes that use this slag occur at intermediate oxygen potentials, the liquidus surface of this slag is not known at these conditions and the effect of oxygen potential and silica has not been correctly understood. This has brought some confusion in literature as well as in the industrial practice. In this work the liquidus surface of the calcium ferrite slags has been quantified by the means of a new thermophysicochemical model and a new type of liquidus surface diagrams which are very convenient for any industrial process that uses calcium ferrite slags. These diagrams can be easily used to select the lowest liquidus temperature of calcium ferrite slags at a minimum cost and can help design several fluxing strategies in copper smelting and converting processes. The effect of the oxygen potential and silica is also quantified and important industrially related conclusions are drawn.

Jan 1, 2003

By Naiyang Ma

Along with fast growth of EAF steelmaking, better ways of treating EAF dust have been continuously pursued for better environmental protection and better economic benefits. In this contribution, various ways of collecting EAF dust in EAF off-gas cleaning systems are reviewed, and generation of dust and concentration of zinc in the dust from various collecting devices are examined. Accordingly, recycling of EAF dust through source separation is discussed.

Mar 1, 2018

By Simon N. Lekakh, D. G. C. Robertson

A new integrated CFD-combined reactors approach is proposed for the description of processes in metallurgical vessels. CFD simulations were used to obtain the melt flow pattern in the vessels (ladle, tundish, and continuous caster mold). From these simulations, the characteristic curves were derived: (i) the residence time distribution curves (RTD) for flow-through systems (at tundish exit or at dendrite coherency surface in the mold) and (ii) the mixing curves for closed systems (ladle). In the next step, the melt flow was represented in a “combined reactors” system consisting of a combination of unit reactors (Plug Flow, Mixer, and Recirculated Volume). An inverse simulation was used to define the volumes of the reactor units and the melt flow rates between them by fitting to the characteristic curves from both methods (CFD and combined reactors). The suggested approach is demonstrated for multiple designs of Ar-stirred ladles, tundish, and SEN. This methodology can be used to enhance traditional post-processing CFD analysis and also as a tool for on-line process control.

Jan 1, 2014

By Cheryl S. Lim

New technologies such as direct reduction and smelting reduction processes are increasingly being used in iron-making and steel-making in addition to conventional blast furnace technology. Critical parameters for control of these processes include the degree of metallization, degree of pre-reduction, and carbon and silica levels. On-line monitoring of these parameters is difficult because measurements often need to be made on hot ores (at or higher than -1000'C) in circumstances where representative sample streams are not readily accessible. A nuclear analyser has been developed which provides continuous, non¬intrusive, real-time measurements of iron, oxygen, carbon and silicon levels in hot ores undergoing reduction. The analyser has been tested in a plant using a direct smelting process on pre-reduced feed to the smelting vessel-, accuracies of 1% relative, 0.5 w'.96 (25% relative) and 1.0 wt.% (9% relative) were obtained for the degree of pre-reduction, carbon and silica respectively. The underlying method, capabilities and potential applications of the analyser will be discussed.

Jan 1, 2001

By S. J. Gerdemann

The U.S. Bureau of Mines is studying the kinetics of wet oxidation of sphalerite concen- trate (ZnS) as a possible process for a gravity-pressurized reactor (GPR). At tempera- tures in excess of 200' C, a sphalerite water slurry will react with 0, to form zinc sul- fate (ZnSO,). However, the pressure required to keep the water from boiling at these temperatures has kept this reaction from becoming a viable continuous process. The GPR can easily obtain the high pressures required for this reaction. The reaction rate is complicated by the solubility of 0, in water and the further oxidation of ZnSO, to insoluble zinc oxysulfate (Zn4(OH),S04.4H20). The effects of pressure, temperature, and particle size on the rate of reaction were investigated. Reaction rate was found to be limited by the amount of oxygen in solution. However, at 250" C and 1500 psia, over 90 pct of the zinc was solubilized in less than an hour. The conditions for maxi- mizing the Zn++ in solution, while minimizing oxysulfate formation, are discussed.

Jan 1, 1993

By Zhang Hanbo, Niu Liping, Zhang Zhiqi, He Jicheng, Dou Zhihe

"Rutile, ilmenite and Al-Ca complex reducer were used to prepare high titanium ferrous alloy by enhanced reduction-SHS method. The effects of the complex reducer compositions and slag types on the enhanced reduction-SHS process were investigated. The high titanium ferrous alloys were characterized by XRD and SEM. The results indicate that the high titanium ferrous alloys consist mainly of TiFe2, AlTi3 and Al2O3. The oxide inclusions exist resulting in directly the high oxygen content and micro-structural defects in the alloys. The titanium and oxygen contents decrease, but the aluminum content in the alloy increases while the mass ratio of calcium in the Al-Ca complex reducers increases. When the mass ratio of Al/Ca in the Al-Ca complex reducer is 6:1, titanium, oxygen and aluminum contents are 63.75%, 3.01% and 10.72% respectively. When the mass ratio of Al/Ca is 5:1 titanium content is 55.00% nearly and aluminum content is higher than 14.00%, but oxygen content is lower than 2.0%.1. IntroductionThe high titanium ferroalloys with 65%~75% titanium have the advantages of low melting point and high titanium content. They are widely used in special steel refining, while they are also a kind of very important quality orientation alloys in the rage of aviation and aerospace. At present, the methods of preparing high titanium ferroalloy include vacuum remelting and thermit reduction. The alloys prepared by the vacuum remelting method have good qualities and low oxygen content, so it is widely used in Russia, Western Europe and other developed countries. In China, there are abundant rutile resources, but waste titanium is lack, therefore, the preparation method is the thermit reduction. But there are many quality defects in the high ferrotitanium alloy, including high oxygen content, unstable quality and so on. In order to improve the qualities of the high titanium ferroalloy, especially to reduce oxygen content, the domestic and overseas have done a lot of further researches. For example, Sichuan E-mei ferroalloy plant and Beijing Nonferrous Metal Research Institute have prepared high titanium ferrous with 73.77% titanium with natural rutile, but the oxygen content is high. Through controlling the quality of raw material, they obtained the better qualities, but the oxygen content is still very high. South Africa Mintek company have prepared high titanium ferrous alloy with low nitrate by plasma heating under the isolation air conditions, but they couldn’t also remove effectively oxygen in the alloy. The oxygen exists in the form of Al2O3 and titanium protoxide. So it can be speculated that except TiO2 not being fully reduced, the no-sufficient alloy-slag separation is the direct reason resulting in high oxygen and poor microstructure. In view of present technical difficulties during preparing high titanium ferroalloy by thermit reduction, this paper proposed a new method of preparing high titanium ferrous with low oxygen by enhanced reduction-SHS with Al-Ca complex reducer. Ca in Al-Ca complex reducer has stronger reductive ability, it can effectively strengthen the reductive degree of TiO2. The slagging agent CaO CaF2 and MgO can effectively reduce the viscosity of Al2O3 slag to improve its liquidities to strengthen alloy-slag separation effects so that to remove inclusions and oxygen. In this paper, effects of slagging agent type on the reduction and the qualities of high-titanium ferroalloy were studied."

Jan 1, 2012

By C. G. Bastos Andrade, F. R. Valenzuela Diaz, S. M. Toffoli

The modification of structural clays by chemical processes is a common method. It usually uses strong inorganic acid attacks, aiming at improving the clay’s properties and applications. Among the applications are its use in clay-polymer nanocomposites, cosmetics, medicines, and bleaching clays. Tests using acid attack to modified Brazilian bentonites were successfully performed and, resulted in significant improvement in the clay properties. This paper discusses the use of a Brazilian bentonite modified by acid attack as bleaching clay. The treated bentonite samples were characterized by XRF, specific surface area (BET) and SEM/EDS. The treated clay exhibited improved bleaching capacity for Brazilian nut oil and other Amazonian oils.

Mar 1, 2018

By S. K. Kawatra, T. C. Eisele

"Recent advances in microbiology have made the application of biotechnology to metallurgical processes possible. Hydrometallurgy stands to gain the cost from the use of microorganisms, as they are useful for both dissolution aids and for removing metals from solution. The development of genetic engineering techniques promises to greatly increase the importance of bioprocessing of metals and minerals by the year 2000.In this paper, the basic effects of microorganisms on metallurgical processes are reviewed, and the applications which are currently either in use or near being used are presented. Representative data collected at Michigan Technological University is also given.IntroductionMany hydrometallurgical operations exist which are thermodynamically possible, but which are industrially impractical due to slow kinetics, high reagent costs, or the need for a highly corrosive environment. However, recent discoveries in microbiology indicate that in many cases these difficulties can be reduced greatly by the action of bacteria and other microorganisms (1-8).A major advantage of using living organisms in hydrometallurgy is that once the culture is established the microorganisms produce their own reagents either from the material being processed or from low-cost nutrient supplements. They thus allow extremely complex chemical reactions to be carried out at reasonable cost. The major drawback of using microorganisms is their inability to tolerate extremely high temperatures, excessive concentrations of toxic metals, or very highly acidic, alkaline, or corrosive conditions. However, the complex reactions which bacteria make possible frequently eliminate the need for such extreme conditions. Also, in recent years a number of organisms have been isolated from such exotic environments as hot springs and deep-ocean vents which can tolerate temperatures higher than was previously thought possible for any organism, and can catalyze a number of metallurgically important reactions (8)."

Jan 1, 1988

By Y. Shigeno

The reactivity of a porous solid is a strong function of its pore structure (porosity, pore surface area and pore size distribution). It follows that reactivity could be altered by altering pore structure; one way to achieve this is by chemical vapor infiltration whereby a gaseous species is reacted in the porous solid to produce a solid. Experiments were carried out in which the pore structures of various carbons were modified by cracking methane within the pores; oxidation rates of the carbons were then measured for both infiltrated and original samples. For coke it was found that two indices of coke performance used in the steel industry (CRI and CSR) can be greatly improved following a small amount of infiltration. Infiltration/oxidation results are interpreted in terms of measured pore structure changes.

Jan 1, 1993