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By Theo Lehner

"The Boliden Rönnskär Smelter operates in the European Context of tight EH&S limits, with ever increasing regulations and tribulations. The near future promises to bring new burdens in the form of C02 trading, miners and pre-treaters increased appetite for a larger share of contained values, and changing compositions and competition in raw materials. On the other hand, European Smelters such as Rönnskär, Harjavalta have demonstrated an astonishing power of survival. This presentation lists and comments on current challenges but opportunities for increased survival power are also presented. One example of the latter is the ongoing investment into increased treatment capacity for e-scrap.UPDATE ON RÖNNSKÄR OPERATIONSThe Rönnskär Smelter has achieved 80 years of age with no signs of retirement. The smelter is most active in spite of its age! And it has undergone some face lift operations to maintain its attractiveness.Raw material, processing facilities and a market for the products are some essential prerequisites for a viable operation. To justify long term survival, economic terms such as return on investments and positive cash flow need to be considered. Below, we illustrate how the Rönnskär Smelter complies with these terms. To update the reader on current operations, our current flow sheet is depicted in Figure 1. The figure summarizes our current input and output."

Jan 1, 2012

By Shirley Cosin, Guillermo R. Martín-Cortés, Francisco R. Valenzuela-Díaz, Jorge E. Di Rito, Valquiria F. J. Kozievitch

"A procedure that is being studied as a potential method for correct disposal of industrial wastes by incorporation on common clay bodies in the fabrication of structural ceramic products as bricks, blocks and roof tiles. The objective of this paper is to present the results obtained with mixtures of unburned sanitary ware wastes with a common clay from Jundiai, São Paulo, Brazil. Preliminary tests of incorporation (1,0% to 30,0% in weight) were made with hand formed spherical test bodies. With the proportion that presented spheres with the higher compression strength after drying and after firing (950°C) prismatic samples were extruded. Based on the ceramic properties of those mixtures an industrial test was performed. Six hundred hallow blocks containing 30% waste were fabricated and presented ceramic properties similar to those without incorporation. Introduction The sanitary ware segment has a very great prominence in South America, placing Brazil as one of the greater producers of the world.. Inside the country, the city of Jundiai, in the State of São Paulo is the greater producer region of this ware. Great part of the material is destined to exportation and daily it is produced high number parts. High exportation requirements make that the amount of powder waste rejects reach astronomical volumes. Until the moment too small part of that material it is re-taken with advantage, because in the own segment, there is not an economic viability, by the fact of the exigencies concerning the quality of the final product [1]. If from one side it exists that material that at the moment is deposited in landfills, or stored at the patio’s factories, from the other side the exigency of adopting exploitation rules, recycling and obedience to Laws relative to the environment as ABNT 10400, therefore it is a material that if well studied, it will certainty have a noble destiny [1]."

Jan 1, 2008

By Masatsugu Morimitsu, Tian Zhang

"This paper presents a novel anode for oxygen evolution in acidic aqueous solutions to produce non-ferrous metals by electrowinning. The method to prepare the anode was thermal decomposition of a precursor solution, and the obtained anode consisted of Ru02-based oxide catalytic layers formed on a titanium substrate, in which the catalytic layer contains nano-oxide particles as the active component. The oxygen evolution potential was lower than amorphous lr02-Ta20s coated titanium anodes so that the cell voltage of electrowinning was further reduced with the amorphous Ru02-based electrode.IntroductionElectrowinning (EW) is used to produce high purity of non-ferrous metals, and the primary metal production of copper, zinc, nickel, and cobalt by EW consumes huge electric energy worldwide, which tends to increase with increasing demand of such metals. The reduction of electric energy consumption is a significant issue for electrowinning industry, which means that the cell voltage reduction is needed to realize more energy-efficient EW processes. Another issue is also indicated from environmental perspectives; i.e., an improvement in EW plant environment by eliminating hazardous byproducts and wastes. Such byproducts and wastes include lead oxide, manganese oxide, and acid mist.We have been developing the anodes for energy-efficient and environmentally friendly electrowinning processes [ 1-11]. The development has been successfully done with the invention of the smart anode, MSA TM (Morimitsu Smart Anode) [ 1-5], which has low polarization for the main reaction and high polarization for the side reaction, in which the main reaction is oxygen or chlorine evolution, while the side reaction is the anodic deposition of each or both of lead oxide, manganese oxide, and cobalt oxide. The anode consists of a valve metal substrate coated with amorphous or less crystalline oxide catalytic layers. One of the typical examples of such oxides is amorphous lr02-Ta20s, and the substrate is normally titanium plate or mesh. The most important point of the oxide is that the amorphization or less crystallinity induce the increase in the active surface area only to the main reaction, not to the side reaction, thereby the polarization of the main reaction being reduced.In this paper, we present the smart anode consisting of RuO2-based catalyst formed on titanium substrates for oxygen evolution in electrowinning. The preparation, characterization, and polarization behaviors of the anodes are shown, and the cell voltage data for zinc or copper electrowinning using the anodes are also presented."

Jan 1, 2012

By R. H. Crist

Reactive components of algal cell walls include uronic and alginic acids: In addition, many marine species have half ester sulfate groups which function as fixed anions. Associated metals vary with the media, eg., Ca and Mg in fresh water (FV) and Na, Ca, Mg in seawater. . These metals readily exchange with aqueous phase protons or metal cations. A plot of the total amount of metal cations displaced by protons vs .. pH shows one inflection at pH 4 for FV algae and' in addition a second inflection at pH 2, 3 for marine algae. The first inflection is interpreted as. Indicating the cations associated with carboxyl groups ,and the ,second with half ester ?Sulfate groups. The exchange capacities of various aigal ,species vary widely. When FV algae is placed in a Pb2+ solution,- the amount of Pb2"' deposited on the algae is. Equivalent to the. Total Ca2?, Mg2, and H+ displaced? thereby confirming the ion exchange mechanism. Ion exchange equilibrium constants are reported for the displacement of ca2+ from Vaucheria. With Mg2+, sr2+, Cd2+, Pb2+_ and Na+ as well as the reverse reactions. Cd2+ can .be removed partially from algae by precipitating it as CdS or Cd(OH) 2 Pb2+ and Cu2+ are also partially removed as the hydroxides. Rates of reaction for various alkali hydroxides decrease with increasing .unhydrated cation radius. It is concluded that theory is useful in predicting viable applications for algae in pollution abatement.

Jan 1, 1991

By Gjergj Dodbiba, Atsushi Shibayama, Toyohisa Fujita, Takashi Shikazumi, Yukio Kato, Kenji Murata

"A new crushing or liberation technique by means of underwater explosion is put forward. This technique is suitable for crushing and liberating various materials, for instance: the electric parts of the discarded portable telephone, CPU from mother-boards of PCs, steel from plastics tubes used as construction materials, waste constructed materials like panels, tungsten carbide scraps, as well as slitting the optical disk (e.g. DVDs), etc. The materials to be crushed are immersed in water and then the explosion is carried out by using only a small amount of explosive. The shock waves in combination with the generated bubbles are very effective in liberating the materials of different densities. It was observed that the metals crushed or liberated by using this technique were leached much faster when compared with the conventional crushing technique. This crushing method can be applied for liberation of many kinds of electric or mechanical tools. Introduction The explosive has been used since Nobel’s invention in 1866. The main practical application of explosion is in the large scale public works, such as dam construction, land development, tunnel, mining and dismantlement of building. The shock wave caused by explosion extremely can generate high pressure able to break the concrete and rock, and other materials. In this study, the crushing and liberation of waste materials was carried out by explosion in water. The idea was to use this technique as a pretreatment stage prior to recycling. The explosion in water can be used to crush hard materials, helping the liberation between different attached materials. The samples used in this experimental work are waste materials such as construction materials, hose, cemented carbide, cellular phone, lithium buttery, DVD-R, etc."

Jan 1, 2008

By S. H. Amini

The effects of CaF2 and ilmenite on dissolution rate and diffusivity of CaO in calcium alumino-silicate based slag in a temperature range of 1500 ? 1600 ºC were studied by using the rotating disk/cylinder technique. The effect of rotation speed on the rate of dissolution in the base slag indicated that mass transfer in liquid slag played a significant role in controlling the dissolution. At a constant rotation speed, the effect of 5 wt% addition of fluxes tothe slag on the dissolution rate was investigated at various temperatures. While CaF2 had the highest effect, addition of ilmenite increased the rate of dissolution significantly. The diffusivity of lime in these slags was quantified using the dimensionless mass transfer correlations for rotating disk/cylinder in the melt. The diffusivity values were deduced using the data on dissolution rate and solubility of lime in the slags. The measured diffusivity in base slag at 1500 C was found to be about 1.32 10-5 cm2/s and increased to 3.07 10-5 cm2/s at 1600 °C. Addition of 5wt% CaF2 increased the diffusivity by a factor of 3 to 5, while 5wt% ilmenite increased the diffusivity by a factor of 2 to 3 in the temperature range of 1500 to 1600 ºC. The two examined fluxes reduced the activation energy of diffusion.

Jan 1, 2006

By Oleg I. Platonov

The process for desulfurizing coke oven gas in a regenerative system ?scrubber-stripper?, with sour gas being fed to Sulfur Recovery Unit (SRU) and tail gas being recycled to raw coke gas scrubber, has been developed. A key problem of this process is the presence of elemental sulfur in the SRU off-gas, which may deposit on gas-blowing equipment, thus disrupting its operation. A new treatment technology for SRU off-gas that has been worked out for a Claus unit operated by «Russian Metallurgical Company» (RMC) in Magnitogorsk (Russia) is presented. It incorporates a catalytic hydrolysis/hydrogenation stage, where all sulfur-bearing species such as sulfur dioxide, carbonyl sulfide and elemental sulfur are converted to hydrogen sulfide. The SRU in Magnitogorsk comprises three main units: gas re-heater; catalytic hydrolysis reactor and waste gas cooler. Re-heater is required to increase temperature of the process gas up to a level of catalytic conversion (beyond 330-3500C). Oxygen utilized as an oxidizing agent reduces the volume of waste gas to a minimal possible value. The operational data garnered since 16.07.2004 clearly shows that the new technology allows high-level purification of Claus tail gas from elemental sulfur. Unlike SCOT ? process, this technology does not require separate stages for H2S removal and enrichment that tangibly simplifies its implementation at lower capital and operation expenditures.

Jan 1, 2006

By Andrey V. Tarasov

To carry out a physicochemical substantiation of a transition to ?soft? modes of reduction of calcine obtained by desulfurizing roasting of nickel concentrate produced as a result of copper-nickel converter matte separation in a nickel anode production circuit, an analysis has been conducted of the macrokinetic behavior of actual calcine samples in the presence of gaseous H2-CO mixtures and solid reductant additives. Within a temperature range of 900°C to 1100°C the main regularities typical of the calcine reduction process with individual gases (H2, CO) also take place when using a gaseous mixture. Under the conditions of low-temperature (900°C to 1000°C) nickel oxide reduction with products of fuel oil conversion in the presence of coke, the role of the latter is insignificant from the technological viewpoint. As a result of the present investigations, we have obtained analytical expressions of macrokinetic parameters of the reaction interaction within the [NiO] calcine-H2-CO-C-CO2-H2O-O2-N2 system.

Jan 1, 2005

By A. F. Otero

During the electrowinning (EW) of copper significant quantities of highly toxic vapors (acid mist) are produced due to the liberation of oxygen at the cathodes. Acid mist affects the health of operators, the environment and plant infrastructure. Acid mist can be decreased to acceptable levels by a combination of physical means (e.g. ventilation, plastic spheres over electrolyte) and chemical surfactants that decrease the surface tension of the electrolyte, modifying the way oxygen bubbles burst at the surface of the electrolyte. However, only few chemical surfactants are compatible with electrolytic applications, and they are not always used due to their high costs. This paper describes the application of a novel surfactant of natural origin (commercial name Mistop®) to suppress acid mist in copper EW process. Mistop® contains triterpenic saponins derived from the Chilean quillaja tree Quillaja saponaria Molina. The product is non-toxic, and poses no risks to the environment or to EW operators. Mistop® was tested at a laboratory, pilot plant and industrial scale in the world?s largest copper EW production plant at Radomiro Tomic (RT), CODELCO, Chile. At a Mistop® dosage of 8-9 ppm, acid mist decreased below the value accepted by Chilean regulations (< 0.5 mg/m3). At this dosage, Mistop® represents and economical alternative to chemical surfactants, and it is currently industrially used at RT.

Jan 1, 2003

By Alhondra de los Santos, Jesús L. Valenzuela, Jose R. Parga

"The present study evaluated the feasibility of using iron species generated by electrocoagulation (EC) as an adsorbent for removal As(III/As(V) from aqueous media. The full potential of EC was evident in that more than 99 percent of arsenic was removed without addition of chemical reagents. The adsorbent iron-species generated by EC was characterized by Chemical Analyses, X-Ray Diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy. The experimental data were correlated by employing a Langmuir adsorption isotherm. Thermodynamic parameters such as ?H o , ?S o and ?Go were calculated. The adsorption process was found to be exothermic and spontaneous.1. IntroductionArsenic contamination in potable water supplies is a serious health problem in many countries around the world. Groundwater arsenic contamination in La Comarca Lagunera Mexico was first reported 30 years ago [1]. Arsenic concentration has been found in well water from several communities ranging from 0.25 to 1.0 ppm. The elevated concentration of arsenic in water, above that originating from natural sources, has been attributed to the use of organoarsenical pesticides in the cotton fields and also to the millions of tons of waste slag generated at a local lead smelter [1]. The main arsenic species present in natural waters are arsenate ions 3- 4 AsO (oxidation state V) and arsenic ions H3AsO3, - 2 3 H AsO and 2- 3 HAsO oxidation state III). However, As(V) ions are most prevalent in oxygenated water while As(III) is found for anaerobic conditions, such as in well water or in groundwater. Conventional methods of arsenic removal rely on chemical-based treatment with lime, alum coagulation, iron coagulation and chemical oxidation. Other processes used with varying degrees of success include adsorption onto activated carbon, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, manganese dioxide, magnetite and ionexchange resins [1-3]. These conventional processes generate a considerable quantity of secondary hazardous waste such as solid sludge, which also pose serious environmental problems. These drawbacks have forced various industries to search for effective, alternative treatment technologies for arsenic with a preference for electrochemical methods."

Jan 1, 2008

By M. Sakamoto, S. Karaswa, Y. Yoneoka, Y. Ohmizo

"The Annaka Refinery has been processing leach residue by Waelz process for 17 years. Recently, the quantity of the leach residue has increased due to a decline in the quality ~f zinc concentrate. Meanwhile, negative factors (e.g. deterioration of water balance due to improved electrolytic power consumption rate) have increased· in the processing of the leach residue.We have implemented various measures in responses to this situation, while striving to increase ·processing capacity and achieve stable operation. AS we have largely completed our assessment of the efficacy of these measures, we report on our recent process improvements.IntroductionWe have been treating leach residue by the Waelz kiln process since 1981. At that time, treatment of only 50,000 tons of leach residue per year was anticipated. However, subsequent process improvements have revised this figure up to 75,000 to 80,000 tons per year.However, today's increased Fe zinc concentrate grade has resulted in increased amounts of leach residue. In addition, improvements have reduced electrolytic power consumption rate of zinc electrolysis, limiting the amount of water that can be used in ·the zinc refining processes and for deaning leach residue. Consequently, we encounter an increasing number of problems and factors adversely affecting leach residue treatment, including increases in water-soluble Zn (WsZn) and. S (S04) in leach residue.To solve these problems, we have taken several measures to ensure long-term continuous operation and treatment of this increased · amount of leach residue. This paper discusses these measures."

Jan 1, 2000

By C. G. Anderson, L. G. Twidwell

"Throughout the world, there are many orebodies or materials which have significant value but also contain arsenic, antimony, and mercury. As regulations on the transport, exposure, disposition and emission of these elements have become more stringent; it has become increasingly more difficult to derive the values from the resources. This paper outlines the fundamentals of alkaline sulfide hydrometallurgy and its successful application to arsenic, antimony and mercury bearing ores, concentrates, by-products, and other materials.Fundamental Alkaline Sulfide HydrometallurgyHydrometallurgical methods can be employed for treatment of gold, arsenic, antimony, tin and mercury containing materials, concentrates and ores as well as complex ones containing any number of metals. The alkaline sulfide system is one of these and is essentially a mixture of sodium sulfide and sodium hydroxide. This is a unique hydrometallurgical system as it is a very selective lixiviant for the distinct leaching of tin, gold, antimony, arsenic and mercury [1-7]. Worldwide, it is employed industrially in the CIS, China and the United States for the production of antimony [8-15].As an example, when the system is applied to an arsenic containing material like orpiment, As2S3, a solution of sodium thioarsenite is formed. This is illustrated as:"

Jan 1, 2008

By Shadia J. Ikhmayies

"Tin oxide (SnU2) thin films of thicknesses in the range 100-600 nm were prepared on glass substrates by vacuum evaporation at ambient temperature. The films were characterized by transmittance measurements, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations and energy dispersion X-ray analysis (EDAX). It is found that the films have high transmittance and non sharp absorption edges. XRD diffractograms showed that the films are amorphous and the SEM micrographs showed that the surfaces are smooth, uniform and well covered with the material. The EDAX analysis showed that the films are deficient in oxygen. Indirect optical bandgap energy and Urbach tailing in the bandgap was observed, and the width of the tail, which is related with disorder and localized states, was estimated.IntroductionTin oxide is an n-type wide bandgap semiconducting material with a direct bandgap energy of 4 eV and an indirect bandgap of 2.6 eV [1], where inherent oxygen vacancies act as an n-type dopant [2], Tin oxide thin films have been used for transparent electrodes in photoelectric conversion devices namely amorphous silicon solar cells, liquid crystal displays, gas discharge displays, etc. [3]. Perfectly amorphous thin SnO2 films show good electrical response to reducing gases in air and could, hence, be applied to construct semiconductor gas sensors where the metal oxide films function as a monograin-eqivalent active layer [4]. Amorphous SnU2 can also be used in extended gate field-effect transistors (EGFET) as a pH sensor, where the sensitive part is made of the SnO2/Al structure. This device can be used to detect and to quantify any kind of substance that can produce or consume protons, like an enzymatic reaction, therefore showing a large range of applications as biosensors [5].There are different methods to prepare SnO2 films, such as atomic layer deposition (ALD) [6], reactive magnetron sputtering [7], chemical vapor deposition [8, 9], dip coating [10], spray pyrolysis (SP) [3, 11-14], and evaporation [8], The thermal evaporation method was chosen to produce SnO2 thin films in this work because deposition by this technique does not present any compositional problems. In addition, it is a low temperature technique, which increases the probability of producing amorphous films. To increase this probability, the films were deposited at ambient temperature."

Jan 1, 2012

By A. S. Mustafinova, A. A. Zharmenov

"Production of electrolytic copper is characterized by large volumes of acidic spent solutions the utilization of which requires considerable expenditures of neutralizing agents. At present, an economically substantiated technology does not exist for treatment of sulfuric acid rinse solutions and spent copper electrolyte which will allow for repeated use of the acid and the metal salts. Therefore, for this aim the most advantageous is the use of electromembrane methods. In the paper there is stated the essence of developed technologies which are distinguished by low waste and provide the extraction from the solutions of metallic copper, nickel and sulphuric acid. There are also considered methods of copper electrolyte processing allowing to regulate its composition by that or another component (H2S04, Cu, Ni, As).On the base of the detailed study of the behaviour of various types of ion- exchanger membranes in copper-, nickel-, zinc-, arsenic- bearing sulphate solutions there is realized the selection of the most suitable membranes (MK -401, MA-411, MB-2 and MKL-l/MAL-2).Some variants of electro membrane processing of spent solutions of the hydrometallurgy process have passed productions tests on a number of copper-electrolyte enterprises of the countries of CIS (cooperation of Independent States). These tests showed high efficiency of developed methods."

Jan 1, 1997

By Manolete Mena

WC-Co nanocomposite powder is among the first group of materials with a promising potential for nanocrystalline-materials application. A chemical vapor synthesis (CVS) process that has previously been used for preparing the aluminides of titanium and nickel, and other metallic and intermetallic powders has been applied to the preparation of WC-Co nanocomposite powder. This CVS system was designed so that a tungsten precursor (WCl6 powder) and a cobalt precursor (CoCl2 powder) were separately fed into each evaporator in a reactor by means of specially designed powder feeders. The reduction and carburization of the vaporized chlorides by methane-hydrogen mixtures produced nanosized WC and Co composite powder. The product is a very uniform mixture of the constituent powders, which is important to ensure a high quality of the bulk cemented tungsten carbide product after consolidation. In the present work, the effects of reaction temperature, CH4 to WCl6 ratio, CH4 to H2 ratio, residence time, and Co content on the powder composition and particle size were determined. The products were characterized using XRD, carbon analyzer, and TEM.

Jan 1, 2006

By Sergei A. Degterov

A thermodynamic database for the slag, matte and liquid copper phases in the Cu-Ca-Fe-Pb-Zn-Si-O-S system has been developed for the ranges of compositions of importance to the production of copper. When used with the Gibbs energy minimization software and other databases of the F*A*C*T thermodynamic computing system, this database will permit the calculation of matte-slag-copper-gas phase equilibria that take place during copper smelting and converting. The calculations reproduce within experimental error limits all available experimental data on phase diagrams, activities of components, enthalpies of mixing, matte - alloy miscibility gap and tie-lines. The calculated solubilities of Cu in both S-free slag and slag equilibrated with matte are also in good agreement with experiment under all studied conditions, such as at SiO2 saturation, in equilibrium with Fe, Cu or Cu-Au alloys, at fixed oxygen or SO2 partial pressures and at different contents of Pb, Zn and CaO in the slag. Sulfide contents (sulfide capacities) of the slags are predicted within experimental error limits. The distribution of Pb and Zn among matte, slag, copper and gas has been calculated. The calculations are in good agreement with experimental data and predict the distributions under conditions which are difficult to study experimentally, such as at magnetite saturation or under various oxygen partial pressures and iron to silica ratios in the slag.

Jan 1, 1999

By Yves Fautrelle, Kader Zaidat, Hervé Combeau, Miha Zaloznik, Mohammed M'Hamdi, Bachir Saadi, Xiaodong Wang, Knut Omdal Tveito

"Numerical simulations of macrosegregation formation during horizontal solidification of a hypoeutectic Sn-Pb alloy in a rectangular cavity is presented and compared to experimental results. The experiment involves a melting phase, a holding stage at constant temperature with/without application of electromagnetic stirring, and finally solidification. We simulate all stages of the experiment and study the segregation of Pb throughout the experiment. A twophase volume averaged model is used for the numerical simulations, accounting for thermosolutal convection and assuming perfect microscopic mixing (lever rule). The influence of the melting phase and the electromagnetic stirring is studied with different cases to illustrate the consequences on the flow pattern and Pb segregation. The numerical simulations are compared to the experimental data and the impact of chemical inhomogeneities prior to solidification on macrosegregation formation is discussed.IntroductionMany extensive investigations have been performed so far on the solidification of metallic alloys. However, the melting process of metallic alloy has not attracted attention in a same manner. Nevertheless, melting of alloy may put forth peculiar effects as described in the present paper. It has been observed from a benchmark experiment [1, 2] that significant stratification might arise during the melting process of Sn-Pb alloy. That effect was put forth thanks to the analysis of the experimental temperature distribution which indicated that the convective fluid flow was almost zero. The effect was enhanced when the lead composition was higher (above 6wt.%). The present paper is aimed at confirming that the melting of an alloy containing a heavier solute may be accompanied with a stratification of the solute which exerts a stabilizing effect on the convective fluid flow. Results obtained from numerical modeling are compared with experimental data obtained from the benchmark facility."

Jan 1, 2012

By Zviad Kovziridze

The problems related to the production and research of SiC-Si3N4 composite are presented. The technology of producing the protective casings for tips and thermocouples is developed. Optimum composition charge and technological parameters are defined. The results of casing testing at production plants are presented.

Jan 1, 2006

By Heikki Jalkanen

The mineralogical composition and morphology of solidified copper smelting and converting slags are of some interest from slag cleaning (by froth flotation), impurity elimination, and environmental points of view. Properties result from both the state of molten slag before solidification and processes taking place during solidification and cooling. In solidification and cooling, copper and sulfur dissolved in molten slag are .precipitating substantially from the silicate phase. Even in water quenching of slag, dissolved copper is pushed out of the solution in the form of finely divided precipitate. Elements present in the raw materials are distributed in a distinct manner between the solidified slag and non-silicate solidification products. Arsenic, antimony, and tin are strongly accumulated in copper precipitate, but not the other metallic constituents common in copper concentrates. Smelting and converting slags differ remarkably on their mineralogical composition and morphology although resulting principally of same chemical processes. Converter slags are more inhomogenous; they often contain solid particles and copper content is .as a rule higher than in matte smelting slags. The final copper content of converter slags was observed to be in a distinct manner dependent on iron oxide - silica ratio. Slag forming, solidification, and precipitation phenomena are discussed on the basis of mineralogical and morphology analysis of smelter slags and laboratory scale experiments.

Jan 1, 2002

By Du Sichen, S. Seetharaman, Wei Liu

"The viscosities of two-phase mixtures are of great importance in the modelling of the fluid flow in metallurgical processes. For example, in steel making and refining, the intimate mixing of metal droplets in the slag phase requires a consideration of the effective viscosities for the mixture. The present work was aimed at an understanding the phenomena underlying the viscous flow in a two-phase mixture with widely differing viscosities.Emulsions of silicone oils of known viscosities (345mPa.S and 1010mPa.S at 293K) with small amounts of water evenly distributed in the same were prepared by subjecting the mixture to uniform stirring using a magnetic stirrer. The viscosities of these emulsions were measured at constant temperature by rotating cylinder method using Brookfield Digital Rheometer. The uniformity of the preparation of the emulsions was confirmed by the reproducibility of the results. Th7 measured viscosities were generally found to be independent of the torque under the experimental conditions so that the two-phase mixture could be considered as a Newtonian liquid. The variation of viscosities with temperature and the effect of addition of a surface-active substance were also studied in this work.The measured viscosities were found to be· higher than those of both pure water and silicone oil. The experimental viscosities were found to increase with increasing concentration of water. The influence of surface tension on the viscosities was examined by adding surfaceactive agent to the mixtures. The result is discussed and compared with theoretical models developed by Einstein, Taylor and Oldroyd."

Jan 1, 2000