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By Hector Henao

To provide thermodynamic data for converting the nickel matte to liquid nickel, an experimental study was conducted in the phase equilibrium between the Ni-S alloy and the CaO-Ah03 based slag melted in a MgO crucible at 1873 K under controlled Pso2 of 10.1 kPa and pO;, in a range between 2.5x,IO,2 and 10.1 Pa by using CO-C02-S0Z gas mixtures. The content of nickel in the slag at POz of 10.1 Pa, above which solid NiO is expected to precipitate in the equilibrium state, was found to be 4.1 mass% and the contents of sulfur and oxygen in the nickel melt were 0.4 and 0.2 mass%, respectively. It was clarified that increase in the temperature reduces the solubility of nickel in the slag and the contents of sulfur and oxygen in the alloy. The distribution of minor elements such as gold, silver, copper, cobalt, iron, arsenic and antimony between the Ni-S alloy and the CaO-AI20) based slag was also studied. The distribution ratios of iron and cobalt, defined by (%X in slag)/[%X in alloy] where X is the minor element, are larger values than that of nickel, while those of copper, silver and antimony are similar to that of nickel. The distribution ratios of arsenic and gold are lower than that of nickel in the higher range of oxygen partial' pressure.

Jan 1, 2003

By Uday B. Pal

In the electrochemical vapor deposition (EVD) process, gaseous cation precursors are passed over one side of a porous substrate, and oxygen is passed on the other side of the substrate. The gases diffuse and react within the porous substrate, and the pores get filled with the desired solid oxide. Subsequent solid state electrochemical transport through the solid oxide in the pores continues the reaction, and the film grows over the porous substrate. The EVD process has been used to deposit lanthanum chromite interconnection films and yttria stabilized zirconia electrolyte films over porous air electrodes. The EVD growth of these solid oxide films is found to be parabolic in nature, which indicates that the solid state transport (diffusion) of ions through the film controls the growth. This solid state transport can be analyzed using Wagner's treatment of the electrochemical transport. Conductivity measurements and the information on the defect structure of the oxide can be combined with the EVD growth rate measurements to calculate the solid state transport properties (transport numbers and partial conductivities) of the rate-controlling minority species in the oxide. Using this approach, the EVD growth of other electronic, mixed conducting and ionic solid oxide films can also be analyzed.

Jan 1, 1992

By G. F. Archer

Selenium and tellurium, trace metals found in copper smelting, report to blister copper during smelting. Winning these metals from anode slimes, the primary commercial source, is discussed. At Asarco's Amarillo Copper Refinery, slimes treatment segregates selenium and tellurium to a water-soluble soda slag. Aqueous precipitation of tellurium oxide and selenium by sulfur dioxide is valence dependent. Se+6 and Te+6, which constitute a portion of total selenium and tellurium, are not susceptible to this base case treatment. "Secondary Selenium" is formed from these hexavalent species. We describe a process whereby simultaneous oxidation of selenium and tellurium effects a separation. Process conditions for separating selenium dioxide, and efficiency of fume capture are examined.

Jan 1, 1995

By N. Pradhan, B. K. Mishra, B. D. Nayak, B. K. Mohapatra, R. K. Mohapatra

"Present study is about use of a group of Iron[Fe(III)] Reducing Bacteria (IRB) to convert the goethite (a-FeOOH) present in the original lateritic Nickel ore to magnetite under an anaerobic condition and subsequently release the bound Co(III) and Ni(II) through leaching. The lateritic Nickel ore contains 0.8% Ni, 0.049% Co, 1.92% Cr, 0.32% Mn and 50.2% Fe. An anaerobic dissimilatory Fe(III) reducing bacterial consortium capable of using acetate as carbon source (electron donor) and lateritic ore as terminal electron acceptor, changes the initial light brown color of the ore to dark brown. The change in color is due to the conversion of goethite to magnetite, which was confirmed by XRD. When the IRB treated sample was subjected to both bioleaching and acid leaching, it shows a greater recovery of Nickel and Cobalt values as compared to untreated original lateritic Ni ore. Further a magnetic separation method was used to separate the magnetic part of the treated lateritic ore and subjected to acid- and bio-leaching for better recovery of Nickel and Cobalt.IntroductionIt has been known that micro-organisms have the potential to reduce metals but more recent observations have shown that a diversity of specialist bacteria and archaea can use such activities to conserve energy for growth under anaerobic conditions [12]. Natural Fe(III) oxides are high in surface area and are reactive [1]. Fe (III) oxides adsorb a wide range of metal cations and anions by complexation to surface hydroxyl groups [17], and function as the primary redox buffering solid phase in many sediments and subsurface materials [5].Recently a number of bacteria have been isolated based on their ability to use metal ions, including Fe(III), as electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions. These are capable of producing energy by coupling the oxidation of organic compounds to reduction of Fe(III). Iron[Fe(III)]-Reducing Bacteria (IRB) have been isolated and identified from a wide variety of environments including freshwater and marine aquatic sediments and submerged soil [8]. The biogeochemical cycle of iron is linked to those of the trace metals, as many trace metals coassociate with Fe(III) oxides or reduced iron phases (e.g., magnetite, siderite, or iron sulfide). IRB can utilize Fe(III) oxides as terminal electron acceptors for respiration [18]; thereby reducing all or a fraction of the solid. The reductive portion of the iron biogeochemical cycle in non-phototropic environments (e.g., sediments and subsurface materials) is driven by the direct enzymatic reduction of Fe(III) oxides to Fe(II) by dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria [13,14]."

Jan 1, 2009

By Lauri E. K. Holappa

Ferrochrome, as the central constituent in stainless steels is one of the most rapidly growing primary metallic products. In this contribution results of a comprehensive study on the reduction process of chromite ore to FeCr are presented including thermodynamic examination, experimental work on kinetics and mechanisms in solid state, and smelting reduction conditions as well as kinetic modelling of solid state reduction.

Jan 1, 1999

By Jing Zhang, Chenguang Bai, Fusheng Pan

"The microstructure and hot deformation behaviour of an Er-modified Mg-Zn-Ai alloy were evaluated. The results showed that the addition of rare-earth Er changed the morphology of the quasi-continuous grain boundary networked eutectic compound to globular particles. Moreover, a self-strengthening effect was identified for the alloy, which determined its deformation behavior. After hot extrusion, the yield strength and elongation to failure of the Mg-Zn-AI-Re alloy at 200°C were increased by 105% and 120%, respectively, due to an emerged dynamic precipitation strengthening mechanism.IntroductionMagnesium alloys are attracting increasing attention for applications in automobile, electronic devices and hand tools for weight reduction and higher fuel efficiency, because of their lightweight and a high specific strength. However, application of Mg is still very limited. The largest applications are still those non load-bearing castings used at room temperature, such as box case, housing, and covering. One of the main reasons is the inadequate absolute strength both at room temperature and elevated temperatures (> 100°C) of the commercially used AZ, AM series alloys, due to the incoherent interface between the secondary phase y-Mg17AI12 and Mg matrix, as well as the low thermal-stability of the y phase [1]. Besides, the heat-resistant magnesium alloys which contain rare earth (Re) as the main alloying element are very expensive. The other reason is their poor deformability. The key solution is therefore to develop low-cost heat -resistant wrought alloys."

Jan 1, 2012

By Lauri E. K. Holappa

The aim of the metallurgical process development is, nowadays, to search for the shortest, most economical, more environmentally friendly and sustainable route to convert raw materials to finished products. Recent progress in steelmaking processes ? BOF and EAF - has also motivated to search for more advanced casting technologies to shorten process route. Continuous casting, which became industrially feasible in the 1960s, is now a mainstream technology with over 90% share of the world steel casting. After the 1980s, the increase in steel production and consumption, particularly from automobile, construction and home appliances industries, required steel manufacturers to accelerate production with more concise procedures, so that near-net-shape casting took the trend of development in order to bypass and simplify the downstream processes, e.g. cold/hot rolling mill or extrusion mill, to directly obtain finished products with required geometries. Progress in flat and long products changed the industrial operation pattern, strengthened steel production efficiency, and formed the operation concepts of the integrated steelworks and mini-mills, respectively. Thin slab casting and strip casting have represented the most important progress and promise, in the recent years, of such innovations furthermore strengthening the production efficiency and, concurrently, coinciding with the demands of environmental protection and sustainability. This paper reviews the most recent progresses in near-net-shape casting and prospects the impacts to steel industries as well as the development trends of steel production, in general.

Jan 1, 2006

By Wufeng Jiang, Jiann-Yang Hwang, Suju Hao, Yuzhu Zhang

Magnetite powder and coke powder were used as experimental materials and H2 as reducing agent in a high temperature vacuum tube furnace. The change rules of magnetite powder (MP), mixed coke powder and magnetite powder (MCMP), and carbon coated magnetite powder (CCMP) in the process of reduction were studied. The samples were determined by field emission scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The results show that, with the increase of reduction time, the reduction degree of magnetite powder is improved. Under the same reduction conditions, the addition of coke powder improves the reduction rate. Compared with MP, when the reduction time was 120 min, the reduction degree of MCMP was 30% greater; and the reduction degree of CCMP was 39% greater. The mixed grinding of magnetite powder and coke powder is a better way to add carbon. Under the same reduction conditions, compared with MCMP, the reduction degree of CCMP was 9% greater when the reduction time was 120 min. After the reduction of CCMP, the number of pores in the sample increased and the structure was loose. The results of this study have some reference value for improving the reduction rate of magnetite powder.

Mar 1, 2018

By M. Yoshida, S. Hanada, T. Takasugi

"A study has been conducted to examine the effect of ternary alloying elements on high temperature deformation of the C15 NbCr2 based intermetallics in Nb-Cr-X (X=V, Mo and W) alloy systems, which have attractive properties as high temperature structural materials. The high temperature deformation of the C15 NbCr2 intermetallics can be improved by two alloying methods. One method is based on geometrical consideration for site occupation and atomic size factor of component elements and additive elements in the single phase C15 lattice; addition of Mo and V can promote dislocation movement without introducing significant hardening. The other method is based on microstructural modification through ternary alloying; moderate addition of these elements results in a variety of duplex microstructure consisting of the C15 phase and bee solid solution without forming any intermediate phases, and can enhance the high temperature deformability. Particularly, alloys with duplex microstructure equilibrating with Cr-rich bee solid solution is shown to exhibit superior deform ability. Also, lattice property of the additive atoms in the C15 structure and phase relation between the C15 structure and the bee solid solution are investigated by OM, XRD, TEM and ALCHEMI observations and then discussed in association with observed mechanical behavior.IntroductionLaves intermetallics with AB2 stoichiometry belong to the largest group in a large number of intermetallics with various kind of crystal structures, and have a variation of the cubic CIS, the hexagonal C14 and the dihexagonal C36 structures, depending on stacking sequence of XYZ type, each of which consists of four interpenetrating atomic layers (1-3). Some of the Laves intermetallics have good functional properties and therefore are considered to be used as, for instance, magnetic materials, magneto-optical materials, hydrogen storage materials and superconducting materials (2). Also, the Laves intermetallics are considered to be good candidate as high temperature structural materials operating at high temperatures and in severe environment because they have high melting point, low density, and potential resistance to corrosion and oxidation. However, the Laves intermetallics are very brittle at low temperatures because they consist of complex crystal structures similar to many other intermetallics."

Jan 1, 1996

By M. Krishna, Jayagopal Uchi1, Shanta Sastry, B. M. Satish

"A well-considered composite of ZA-27 reinforced with weight percentage 0, 2, 4, and 6% of alwninite particulate has been made by compocasting technique. The elastic properties of ZA- 27 /alwniniute particulate composite were determined by using U1M. The results showed that the modulus of elasticity and UTS of the composite gradually increases with increase in the wt.% of reinforcement. However, the overall ductility decreased monotonically with an increase in reinforcement. The results of these tests· as well as the predictions of several model~ for composite strengthening available in the literature were compared with experimental results. The data observed from Young's modulus by measurements studies were compared with theoretical results predicted by Eshelby model.IntroductionMetal matrix composites (MMCs) have received increasing attention in _the recent decades as engineering materials. The introduction of a ceramic reinforcement into a metal matrix produces a composite material resulting in an attractive combination of physical and mechanical properties that cannot be obtained with monolithic alloys. Particulate reinf9rced MMCs among the discontinuously reinforced MMCs have attracted quite a lot of attention both in the industrial sectors and the academic communities. There is an increasing need for knowledge about the processing techniques and mechanical behavior of particulate MMCs in view of their production getting enhanced and their commercial applications becoming wider [I]. Interest in particulate reinforced MMCs is mainly due to easy availability of particles and economical processing techniqu"

Jan 1, 2000

By Kenji Morinaga, Hiromichi Takebe

"Ge-S binary glasses in the range 57 to 90 at %S at 0.5 to 3 at %S intervals were prepared by a conventional melting technique using fused quartz ampoules as melting containers. Impurities contaminated during preparation process are evaluated by IR spectroscopy. The causes of impurity contaminations are discussed. Density data in a systematic series of Ge-S glasses is demonstrated. IntroductionSulfide glasses are of particular interest for new laser and nonlinear optical materials in the near-infrared and infrared regions [1]. Sulfide glasses have the features of low-phonon-energy and high refractive index with moderate rare-earth ion solubility. The low-phonon-energy is favorable for the reduction of nonradiative rate for the emission of rare-earth ions. The high refractive index results in a high radiative-rate and in a high third-order nonlinearity. However, impurities may degrade the superior optical properties of sulfide glasses.In this work Ge-S glasses were prepared by a conventional melting technique. Impurities contaminated during the preparation process are evaluated and their causes are discussed for future improvements. The measured densities of Ge-S glass samples were compared with the results of previous studies [2], [3]. Ge-S glasses have some favorable properties for practical .applications including non-toxicity, good thermal and chemical stabilities."

Jan 1, 2000

By J. F. Leroux

The Gaspé smelter at Murdochville, Quebec, Canada introduced concentrate injection into elongated Peirce-Smith converters sized 1.96m x 12.5m (13 ft. by 41 ft.) in 1996, and commissioned a large, converter-like bath smelting vessel in April 1998. The new vessel, which is sized 4.27m x 16.1 5m (14ft. by 53ft.) has several interesting features designed to effectively utilize bath smelting technology for the requirements of the Gaspé smelter. For example, the vessel can operate on concentrate injection at upwards of 60-80 tph rate on an instantaneous basis, can operate as a large Peirce-Smith converter, while it is also fitted with matte and slag tapholes much akin to Noranda Process reactor, and includes a novel cold charge addition system. The new technology will eventually allow the capacity of the plant to increase from about 300,000 tonnes of concentrate per year to over 350,000 tonnes of concentrate per year while improving sulfur capture.

Jan 1, 1999

By Y. Iguchi, T. Narushima, T. Shiozawa, M. Maruyama, R. Arashi

"In situ observation system for thermal oxidation using Raman spectroscopy' was constructed, and oxide films formed on liquid pure Al and Al-Mg alloys (Mg contents = 1 and 4 mass%) were analyzed at room temperature to 1273 K in dry oxygen. In situ Raman spectra of the surface of a liquid Al-:-4mass%Mg indicated the formation of MgO • AlP3 (spinel) as oxidation products, while a -AlP3 and MgO • Alz03 (spinel) were observed on a liquid Al-1mass%Mg alloy. It was suggested that the formation of MgO film affected oxidation behavior of these alloys.IntroductionLiquid aluminum alloys are cast to ingots mainly by the continuous casting process. It is well-.known that surface cracks could be caused by oxide films formed on the surface of melt during continuous casting and defects due to the film. With regard to oxidation behavior of liquid aluminum alloys, many investigations l -s have been carried out from the view point of formation of ceramic metal composites(CMC) which are expected as cutting tools and structural materials 1.2. It is very important for reasonable continuous casting and CMC formation processes to elucidate oxidation behavior of melts.Oxidation behavior of materials generally depends on compositions and properties of oxide films formed on the surface. If in situ observations of oxide films are available during oxidation, evaluation of oxide films and interpretation of oxidation mechanism could be expected. Laser Raman spectroscopy is one of the most appropriate techniques for in situ observation of oxide films under various atmosphere at high temperatures. The authors have discussed the effects of atmospheres and sample compositions on oxide film formation mechanism on Fe-Si alloy6 and SiC-B4C composite7 on basis of an in situ observation by Raman spectroscopy. In spite of many previous studies, systematic and clear explanations have never been gotten on oxidation behavior of liquid aluminum alloys. And no in situ observation has been made except for transmission electron microscopy(TEM) and X-ray diffraction(XRD)."

Jan 1, 1996

By Alice Barreto Bevitori, Frederico Muylaert Margem, Renan Sopeletto Carreiro, Sergio Neves Monteiro, Isabela Leão Amaral da Silva

"The ramie fiber is one of the strongest lignocellulosic fibers with applications ranging from simple items such as fabrics and ropes to engineering composites for automobile parts and building panels. Characterization of the ramie fiber has recently been conducted for physical and mechanical properties. In principle, thinner ramie fiber could be comparatively stronger and consequently more effective as a composite reinforcement. In this work an attempt to correlate the ramie fiber elastic modulus obtained in tensile test with its corresponding diameter, precisely measured by means of a profile projector, was carried out. Tensile results analyzed by the Weibul1 statistic showed a significant increase in elastic modulus with decreasing the diameter of ramie fiber. Scanning electron microscopy observation of the fracture of selected ruptured fiber revealed possible mechanisms that could justify the elastic modulus/diameter inverse dependence.IntroductionEngineering applications of natural fibers obtained from cellulose-rich plants, also known as lignocellulosic fibers, are currently being the focus of attention. In fact, they are considered an enviromnental1y correct alternative to substitute synthetic fibers such as the glass fiber, associated with an intensive intake of energy during production, as reinforcement of polymer composites [1-4]. In recent years there has been a growing tendency towards the use of lignocellulosic fiber composites in several industrial sectors from civil constructions to car making. In particular, the automotive industry is expanding the number of both interior and exterior components made of natural fiber composites [5]."

Jan 1, 2012

By Shivendra Sinha

Total pressure oxidation (TPOX) is widely outreached leaching practice for base metals from sulfide minerals, wherein high temperature (T ∼ 200 °C) and oxygen pressure (pO2 ∼ 25 bar) are required. These aggressive conditions intensify the oxygen mass transfer, and therefore facilitate metal dissolution. However, challenging-cum-negative aspects of such practice are energy and material intensive requirements and high oxygen demand. Thus, the present study explores the novel emulsified medium for enhancement of oxygen mass transfer, which assists faster metal dissolution at significantly lower temperature and pressure condition. It is possible to achieve quantitative dissolution (>95%) of Cu, Ni and Co from mixed sulfide minerals at T ∼ 95 °C and pO2 ∼ 2 bar using an emulsion of 2.5% (v/v) n-Hexadecane in dilute sulfuric acid. In addition, n-Hexadecane was found to be inert, stable and immiscible in a pressurized leaching system, thus can be easily separated and recycled in subsequent leaching stages. Thus, this study offers an energy efficient route for low temperature-pressure leaching of sulfides.

By Kenichi Moriyama

The Sumitomo Toyo Copper Smelter started operation in 1971, as an epoch-making smelter at which 9996 of the charged sulfur could be captured. In the past ten years, the amount of treated copper concentrate has-been increased from 1,300 l/ day to 1;900 t/ day by the extremely effective application of the oxygen enrichment for a flash smelting furnace and converter furnace. The sulfuric acid production capacity at the acid plant has also been increased up to 1,900 t/ day corresponding to the increase of copper concentrate smelting rate without installing an additional acid plant. Furthermore the sulfur fixed ratio is kept at a high level, more than 99.996. despite the SO. strength fluctuation of the wide range of 596 to 1396 which is attributed to the combination of flash smelting furnace and, P.S. converter. These -operational results at the? acid plant were achieved by several modifications. and two examples are briefly described as follows; (1) Converter modifications in order to cope with the high SO, strength -gas (2) Introduction of the anodically protection shell and tube type acid coolers In addition. the quality of sulfuric acid has been positively increased. For example, the concentration of iron and arsenic, which were the main Impurities in ?sulfuric acid, was successfully .reduced.

Jan 1, 1995

By A. Kar, J. Mazumder

"Laser ablation is a process that can be used to synthesize novel nanoscale particles as well as to deposit thin films of various materials. Usually, nanoscale particles and thin films are formed at relatively high and low pressures, respectively, inside the ablation chamber. This paper presents a mathematical model to predict the particle size distribution in the plasma generated during laser ablation. The model is developed by considering the effects of the laser-matter and laser-plasma interactions, the Stefan condition, and the discontinuity across the Knudsen layer. The nanoscale particles are found to be located at the central region of the plasma near the target. The particles have very high velocity and temperature. A good qualitative agreement is observed between the results of this model and experimental data. IntroductionRapid solidification produces novel microstructures whose atomic arrangements and/or chemical compositions are different from those of conventional materials. The conventional materials are either crystalline or amorphous. The crystalline materials have both short- and long-range orders, whereas the amorphous materials have only the shortrange order. The nanocrystalline materials have neither short- nor long-range orders, and for this reason, they exhibit novel properties which are important for synthesizing new materials. The atoms of a nanocrystal can be classified as ""crystal atoms"" and ""boundary atoms"", where the ""crystal atoms"" have the nearest-neighbor configurations similar to the lattice configuration, whereas the nearest-neighbor configurations of the ""boundary atoms"" differ from the lattice configurations 1. Various aspects of the nanoscale materials have been discussed in Refs. [1-7]."

Jan 1, 1994

By S. N. Ashrafizadeh

Nowadays, hard carbides have found various industrial application in the manufacture of cutting and drilling tools as well as metal forming devices. About 60% of the world tungsten production is consumed in the manufacture of hard carbide pieces. Regarding the high economic value of hard carbide components, i.e., Ni, Co, TaC, TiC, and WC, their recovery from scrap species is attracting much interest. In the current research, the cobalt and tungsten content were recovered from scrap cemented carbide pieces through the application of high voltage electrolysis in nitric acid media. By this method, cobalt and tungsten were initially recovered as cobalt nitrate and tungstic acid, respectively. The precipitate of tungstic acid was calcined at 800ºC after being washed twice with distilled water. A pure tungstic oxide was obtained. The effects of current density, electrolyte concentration, speed of agitation, and the surface area of the anode on the efficiency of the electrolysis process were investigated. The optimum conditions of current density of 1500 A/m2, an acid concentration of 1.5 M, and a cell temperature in the vicinity of 60 to 80ºC were obtained. At the optimum conditions, an acceptable rate of collapse for the anodic carbide pieces of about 3.1 g/h was achieved, which remained constant up to the completion of the recovery process without any passivation .

Jan 1, 2003

By V. A. Bryukvin

A characteristic feature of the macrokinetics of the interaction process is the presence of two specifically defined areas of oxidation which had a linear time dependence. The effect of variables, such as residual sulphur content of the melt, temperature and the oxidation potential of the gas phase, on the macrokinetics of oxidation are investigated. Phase composition and structure of products of solidification of partially oxidised melts and thermodynamic properties pentaining to Cu-S-O melts are used to analyze the macrokinetic behaviour and mechanisms of the interaction. The process of interaction of sulfide copper melts with oxygen may be considered as a disproportional absorption process and its mechanism is based on localized interaction on the surface and inside the melt volume. Superficial processes include also the process of primary chemisorption of oxygen by melts at place of metal-metal donor bonds proceeding with formation of oxysulfide liquid solutions and volumetric decomposition of the latter accompanied by evolution of sulfur dioxide and metallization of sulfide melts. It is the degree of dynamic balance of such interaction processes that determines specific individual features of the macro-kinetics and mechanism of oxidation of sulfide copper solutions with oxygen in the gas phase.

Jan 1, 2006

By Makoto Ohtsuka

The ternary Ni2MnGa intermetallic compound is an intelligent material which has both a ferromagnetic property and a shape memory effect (SMB), The use of the shape memory alloy films for an actuator of micro-machines is very attractive because of its large recovery force, The purpose of the present study is to investigate the effects of fabrication conditions and to clarify the relationships between these properties and fabrication conditions of the Ni-Mn-Ga films, The Ni-Mn-Ga films with a thickness of nearly 5 um were deposited with a radio-frequency magnetron sputtering apparatus using a NisoMn2sGa25 or Nis2Mn24Ga24 target. They were heat-treated at various temperatures between 873 and 1273 K for homogenization and ordering and then cooled in a furnace, The composition of the films depended on the sputtering power. The as-deposited films were crystalline and had columnar grains, After the heat treatment the grains widened and the grain boundary became indistinct with the increasing heat treatment temperature, The martcnsitie transformation temperature of the heat-treated films increased with increasing nickel content. Furthermore the effect of plastic deformation and constraint aging on SME is also investigated, After plastic deformation, the two-way SME was shown through the martensitie transformation and its reversion, The intensity of X-ray diffraction peaks from stress-induced martensitie phase was found, The constraint-aged films also showed the two-way 5MB by thermal cycling,

Jan 1, 2003