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By David J. Kusler

The Bureau of Mines reviewed current technology in the refractories consuming industries and evaluated the impact of changes in technology on the supply and demand of refractories. Literature was searched and contacts were made with leading consumers and producers of refractories. The distribution of refractories by value of shipments to users was surveyed. The report shows that the percentage distribution of refractories sales to the consuming industries has remained essentially constant during the last decade but that substantial changes have occurred in the relative distribution of types of refractories. The trend in pyroprocessing technology in recent years has been toward higher temperatures, which require more costly refractories. This fact is reflected in the impressive gain in the dollar value of refractories sales, which in 1968 was about one-third greater than in 1960, and the rapid growth of refractories based on high-alumina, magnesia, zirconia, carbon, and other materials, at the expense of fire clay, silica, and chrome- based refractories. An appendix to the report contains refractories value and shipment data tabulated in a manner by which trends in the distribution of refractory types can be observed from 1955 to 1968. In addition, unit values are presented on a per-ton basis for comparison.

Jan 1, 1970

By Harold J. Bennett

The purpose of this study was to develop methods for the financial evaluation of mineral deposits. This includes the selection of the best alternative mining and processing methods and production rates. This was done by performing a financial evaluation through computer simulation using sensitivity and probabilistic risk analysis. The criterion used to measure the relative advantages of these investment and operating alternatives is the discounted-cash-flow rate of return. Included is a description of the theory and methods used in the probabilistic analysis approach, which is based on the premise that the expression of a range of values in establishing an estimate for a parameter is more realistic than the choice of a single value. Numerous simulations are made using randomly selected values of the input parameters resulting in a frequency distribution of the rates of return and their relative probability of occurrence. The sensitivity analysis method is described and combined with the probabilistic analysis to interrelate mineral reserves, capital investments, operating costs, and production rates. The ability to vary these input parameters on successive runs has permitted the selection of the best alternative mining and processing methods and production rates for a given mineral deposit. For illustrative purposes the evaluation of a mineral deposit was performed using three alternative mining and processing methods at three different quantities of resources and various production rates and prices. The computer program used in this analysis was written in FORTRAN II for maximum compatability and should run without modification on most computers having BK (8,000-word) core memory, a card reader, and printer (120 characters per line).

Jan 1, 1970

By Carl L. Bieniewski

In a Bureau of Mines supply evaluation, the known uranium resources in the United States are estimated to have a total recoverable uranium oxide (U3O8) content of 3,132,400 tons at prices up to $69.32 per pound. Only those resources were evaluated for which sufficient quantity data are available and process technology exists for recovering uranium. A total of 160,800 tons of U3O8 is available at $8 per pound from ore deposits presently mined and an additional 244,700 tons available at prices up to $30 per pound from similar but usually lower grade deposits. A total of 2,726,900 tons of U3O8 is available from four other resources: copper leach solutions, wet-process phosphoric acid, Florida phosphate rock Leached zone, and Chattanooga Shale. These resources contain from 30,000 tons of recoverable U30, at a price of $7.52 per pound as a byproduct of copper leach solutions to 2,557,300 tons at a price of $69.32 per pound from Chattanooga Shale.

Jan 1, 1971

By N. S. Petersen

As part of the Demand Evaluation Program of the Bureau of Mines to determine future needs for minerals, a study was instituted to develop and describe a methodology for approaching the problem of substitution between mineral commodities and between mineral commodities and other materials. The report comprises three sections: A review of general factors relative to substitution, a case study of the effect of substitution on zinc die-casting markets in recent years, and a general methodology for reviewing materials substitution with specific emphasis derived from reviewing substitution in the domestic zinc die-casting markets.

Jan 1, 1971

By Ernest A. Curth

Statistics For 1956-66 show that mine transportation accidents accounted for 19 percent of fatalities in bituminous coal mines, second only to roof deficiencies as a cause of death. Productivity per man-shift increased from 10.2 tons in 1956 to 18.4 tons in 1966, but the fatalities per million man- hours of exposure also increased from 0.19 to 0.21 during that same period, indicating that transportation hazards still persist. Consequently, the Bureau of Mines reviewed the transportation fatalities that occurred in bituminous coal mines during 1956-66. The data were processed by computer to find what constitute hazardous conditions and unsafe actions as well as to correlate occupation and age of victims, transportation type, and mine production. Environmental factors and equipment defects which create hazards, as well as unsafe actions of personnel, were determined for each type of mine transportation: Track haulage, mobile nonrail haulage, conveyors, hoists, automotive operations, and front -end loaders, and for transfer stations (loading points, slope and shaft bottoms, surface transfers) and railroad yards. Man-trip accidents, a group with a catastrophe potential, also were analyzed. The basic design and operational features of each transportation type were outlined and procedures considered safe in the light of accident experience were suggested. Findings show that unsafe actions of personnel and hazards created by environmental deficiencies or equipment malfunctions contribute equally in causing transportation accidents. Accordingly efforts should be directed toward improving working conditions, equipment maintenance, and education and training of employees. The trend is toward using safer modes of transportation, notably conveyors. More attention should be given to track haulage operation, railroad yards, and nondestructive field testing of materials.

Jan 1, 1971

By William Cochran

The Bureau of Mines investigated mine subsidence caused by recent underground mining, estimated the extent of damages, and formulated a procedure for evaluating subsidence costs. On the basis of the quantity of material removed from beneath the surface, bituminous coal mining currently causes more extensive subsidence problems than mining of other minerals; costs are highest in areas such as western Pennsylvania where urban and suburban development and related types of land use conflict with mineral recovery. The Bureau of Mines estimated subsidence costs, including surface damages and control costs, for a 12-county area in western Pennsylvania for 1968. Total surface damages attributable to the underground production of bituminous coal in the 1-year period were $295,000; in addition, 12.4 million tons of coal, valued at $4.3 million, was left in place to minimize potential surface damage. Of the total subsidence cost ($4.6 million), $2.7 million was classified as external or social costs, not reflected in the market value of bituminous coal; this averaged $0.05 per ton of production, or slightly less than 1 percent of the market value.

Jan 1, 1971

By Lyman Moore

This Bureau of Mines report describes 2nd evaluates iron ore resources in California and Nevada and analyzes the California and Japanese iron ore markets in which these resources will be used. The competitive position of California-Nevada ores, in these markets, was estimated by comparing regional iron ore prices, production costs, and transportation costs with those of foreign suppliers. Resources were determined to be sufficient to produce the equivalent of 585 million tons of 64-percent iron pellets at a price of less than $15 per ton delivered at California ports. Much higher tonnage could be produced at higher prices. Iron ore requirement of the California iron and steel industry will increase to an estimated 15.9 million tons by the year 2000. A study of the iron ore production potential of California-Nevada deposits and of out-of- State sources indicated that this ore requirement can be supplied most economically by California-Nevada ores. Iron ore import requirements of the Japanese iron and steel industry will increase to an estimated 150.0 million tons by the year 2000. A study of price trends in this market indicated that very little California-Nevada iron ore will be sold in Japan after 1973 when existing sales contracts expire. Iron ore-exports might be economically possible if ore could be transported from California to Japan at ballast rates as backhaul on existing petroleum shipping.

Jan 1, 1971

By Northcutt Ely

This volume summarizes mining and petroleum legislation in 25 jurisdictions of East Asia and the Pacific. Within these jurisdictions, primary attention is given to requirements that must be met in each country for acquisition of rights to permit development of mineral resources. Coverage includes: First, identification of the controlling laws or statutes governing minerals acquisition and reference to the administrative authority; second, analysis of the laws governing mines and quarries and their products; and third, analysis of laws applicable to natural gas, petroleum, and related materials. Where pertinent, sections dealing with historical background or administration have been added. In countries where minerals are subject to control of States or Provinces, those areas are considered separately from the central government.

Jan 1, 1971

By Lewis M. McNay

The Bureau of Mines located and examined 292 burning coal refuse banks throughout the Nation's coal-producing regions in 1968. These coal waste fires, extending over 3,200 acres, produce poisonous, acrid gases and particulate matter that pose a threat to health and safety in the surrounding areas, damage vegetation, and cause the deterioration of nearby structures and buildings. Methods of extinguishing coal refuse fires are discussed, and an approach to eliminating future occurrences of these fires is presented.

Jan 1, 1971

By J. M. West

Increased leisure time and increased interest in the out-of-doors is leading more and more families to experiment with placer mining of gold, and some- times even to going on into small-scale production. This Bureau of Mines report supplies basic information un areas of occurrence, equipment needed, prospecting, sampling, mining, and regulations concerning the possession and sale of gold. Selected references are given for further study.

Jan 1, 1971

By Bill Linville

During fiscal year 1969, the Bureau of Mines was engaged in 66 projects to improve methods for producing and utilizing petroleum. Programs directed toward the continued conservation of this natural resource, including crude oil, natural gas, and oil shale, were carried out through research performed at four laboratories supervised and supported by administrative personnel of this Bureau of the Department of the Interior. Over 100 technical papers and reports were published by the Bureau or others based on this research, and numerous other reports were prepared for U.S. Government agencies, State agencies, and organizations of the petroleum and natural gas industry engaged in cooperative research programs with the Bureau.

Jan 1, 1971

By Bill Linville

Producing oil, gas, and coal in sufficient amounts to satisfy U.S. demands for fuels, electrical power, and chemicals promises to be one of the country's major challenges during the 1970's. Adding significantly to this challenge is the urgent task of satisfying soaring fuel and power demands without destroying the natural environment or jeopardizing long-range requirements for resources. The Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior, is engaged in a comprehensive program of research to help industry meet this challenge. This report reviews the aims of the research program and accomplishments in 1970; the first 11 sections cover coal programs, nine sect ions are then devoted to petroleum, and the concluding five sections deal with oil shale research. Figure 1 shows the nationwide distribution of Bureau of Mines energy research installations; Full addresses are given in appendix A. Many of the publications resulting from the Bureau?s energy research efforts are discussed throughout the report; others are listed in appendix B.

Jan 1, 1971

Air pollution control regulation$ already implemented or being considered for implementation require substantial investment of capital to remove the sulfur oxides from copper, lead, and zinc smelter gases. There will be an attendant increase in production costs and possibly an associated increase in the price of these metals to the consumer. The total investment and any resultant metal price increase will depend upon the control regulations that ultimately will be adopted by the individual States. Controversy has arisen between the metals industry and governmental control agencies regarding the status of stack gas desulfurization technology and the ability of industry to control sulfur oxide emissions to the degree proposed by some of the more stringent regulations currently under consideration. This paper evaluates the problems involved in achieving various degrees of control over smelter sulfur oxide emissions and the technology available to accomplish the task of assuring clean air. The estimated cost of compliance is reviewed for the copper, zinc, and lead industries, but principal at tent ion is given to the copper situation.

Jan 1, 1971

By Donald P. Schlick

This Information Circular presents a brief historical digest of the early attempts of the Bureau of Nines and the U.S. Public Health Service to establish coal mine dust exposure standards. It reviews current, accepted standards of the United States as well as available standards of other countries.

Jan 1, 1971

By Charles B. Kenahan

A summary of Bureau of Mines research on utilization and disposal of solid wastes is presented, accompanied by an extensive bibliography of related publications. The Bureau's Solid Waste and Materials Recycling Program is directed toward four main areas of research, development, and demonstration: (1) extraction of mineral, metal, and energy values from urban refuse; (2) upgrading and recycling of automotive and related ferrous and nonferrous scrap; (3) utilization and stabilization of mine, mill, and smelter wastes; and (4) recovery and reuse of values from industrial waste products. A contract and grant program that supplements the in-house research and aids in the training of manpower in management of mineral-, metal-, and energy -based solid wastes is also discussed. This publication is an updating of Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8460 issued March 1970.

Jan 1, 1971

By William C. Henkes

Anticipating the availability of space-altitude imagery from the Earth Resource Technology Satellites (ERTS), the Bureau of Mines investigated the possibilities of using suck imagery in its activities in solid waste disposal, reclamation of mine workings, and mineral resource inventory. The study indicates that monitoring open pit and strip-mining operations can be done using conventional techniques if the sharpness of the imagery is sufficiently high. Possibilities also exist for semi-automated processes for change detection. Additional experimentation is needed for multispectral discrimination and identification of mine-related phenomena.

Jan 1, 1971

By John J. Henn

An evaluation is presented of the Bureau of Mines process for the recovery of metal and mineral values from municipal incinerator residues. This process employs standard mineral beneficiation techniques and is operating on a pilot-plant scale of 1,000 pounds of incinerator residue feed per hour. Products from this separation process include ferrous, aluminum, and copper-zinc scrap, and colorless and colored glass. Cost estimates were prepared for four plant sizes. The estimated capital and operating costs For the four plants follow: [ ] It is assumed that the separation plant is located adjacent to a municipal incinerator. Provision is made, however, for part of the residue feed to be delivered by truck so that one large separation plant can be used for residue from more than one incinerator.

Jan 1, 1971

By V. Vern Hutchison

This selected list contains 829 entries with citations to Bureau of Mines publications related to petroleum and natural gas, which were released during the 1961-1970 period. Some entries are multiple in nature, resulting in a total of 881 citations.

Jan 1, 1972

By Joseph Blake Smith

Coal resource data from published sources and company files were used by the Bureau of Mines to determine the location and extent of strippable coal reserves in Wyoming. Total strippable reserves of 23 billion tons were estimated in seven major coal areas. Seven large strip mining operations were active in 1969, and their production totaled 45 million tons of coal. Cutoffs used to define strippable reserves were (1) minimum coalbed thicknesses of 5 feet; (2) overburden-to-coal ratios of less than 10 cubic yards of over- burden per ton of coal; and (3) total overburden thicknesses of less than 120 feet, except where reserves occur in multiple beds or a single thick bed. Tertiary rocks along margins of the Powder River basin contain most of the strippable coal reserves in Wyoming. The Wyodak beds, ranging in combined thickness from 30 to 1.30 feet, crop out on the east flank of the basin and contain an estimated 19 billion tons of strippable subbituminous C-rank coals under less than 200 feet of overburden. Partings between these beds total less than 60 feet. The 100- to 200-foot-thick. Healy bed on the western flank of the basin and the 35-foot-thick School and 20-foot-thick Badger beds on the south also contain large strippable reserves. Elsewhere in Wyoming, strippable reserves. Elsewhere in Wyoming, strippable deposits are subbituminous coal of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary ages, mostly in the Hanna and Great Divide basins in the south-central portion of the State and in the Kemmerer-Hamms Fork region in the southwestern corner.

Jan 1, 1972

On July 1, 1969, the Explosives Research Center merged with the Health and Safety Research and Testing Center to form the Safety Research Center, with facilities at Pittsburgh and Bruceton, Pa. Subsequently, passage in December of the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 (Public Law 91-173) had a major influence on the activities of the new center. These activities were conducted under two main programs, Coal Mine Safety Research and Explosives Research. The Coal Mine Safety Research program was concerned primarily with two categories of hazards: health-related hazards associated with the mine environment, due to such factors as respirable dust, toxic gases and vapors, and excessive noise; and accidents due to mine fires, explosions, and roof falls.

Jan 1, 1972