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By Oliver Bowles

In 1940 the Bureau of Mines issued a report describing all the cement plants of Latin America, their design, capacity, and output, and the cement imports, exports, and requirements of the several countries. Since that time there has been such great activity in cement plant construction that a revision of the paper is highly desirable. The present compilation comprises the essential data in the previous report together with descriptions of all cement plants completed, under construction, or planned since that date and an overall picture of the supply and requirement situation of each country. Before World War I, Latin America was one of the world's largest export markets for cement. Its dependence on outside sources created no special problems of supply until the shortage of shipping and abnormally high prices of the First World War stimulated a movement toward greater self-sufficiency. Under this incentive many cement plants were constructed, and several countries were able by 1939 to manufacture enough cement for their modest needs. Substantial imports were still required for many important areas, and as the volume of demand was rapidly increasing the Latin American countries as a whole were far from self-sufficient in cement when tine Second. World War began. South and Central America depended to a large extent on European countries, chiefly Germany arid Belgium and to a smaller degree Scandinavia, United Kingdom, France, and Italy, to Supply their cement shortages. The cost of manufacture in these European countries was much lower than in the United States, and transportation expense had been kept at a particularly low level because of the two-way trade that had been developed. Ships destined for Latin American ports for coffee, tropical woods; fruits, and other native products could carry cargoes of cement on their westward voyages at very low cost In some instanced cement was taken in exchange for South American -products because cash was not available. Great Britain had withdrawn from this market to quite an extent because of low prices and because trade with its own Empire had been increasingly fostered. United States trade in cement with Latin America had been confined principally to white and other special varieties. In few places could ordinary portland cement made in the United States compete in price with the European products; although in general it was of better quality and cool d be delivered more promptly.

Jan 1, 1946

By Charles W. Briggs

The steel foundries of Germany were investigated for the purpose of ascertaining (1) the type and classification of steel structures produced as castings, (2) processing methods, (3) the mechanical properties of carbon and alloy cast steels, (4) the type and character of defective castings, (5) the appearance of castings, (6) research in steel castings, and (7) plant lay-out and equipment.

Jan 1, 1946

By R. S. Dean

Boron compounds have been considered for many years as possible additions to iron and steel. A very recent use of boron-steel rods was for the control of neutron intensity in the graphite-uranium pile at the Clinton plutonium plant(130).4/ Norris(129) reports that slags containing boric oxide reduce the ferrous oxide content of steels and thereby the aluminum required for deoxidation. Boron is not considered an alloying element, but minute amounts produce what is often called a "needled" steel. The study of a series of iron-boron alloys by convenient steps, starting with iron containing no boron, indicated that boron was a hardening agent and made the iron very difficult if not impossible to forge. Then came the discovery that very minute traces of boron are quite different from the smallest amount previously thought worthy of study.

Jan 1, 1946

The Leuna Factory of the I. G. Farbenindustrie A. G., situated near Merseburg, is the biggest heavy-chemical plant in Germany and produces a very wide range of products, mainly based on hydrogen or hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Its principal products are ammonia, synthetic petrol derived from the hydrogenation of brown coal, and synthetic alcohols made from hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The plant was first, visited on April 21, 1945, by a team including E. Cotton, V. Haensel, E. B. Peck, P. K. Kuhne, H. M. Weir, L. L. Hirst, W. W. Odell, G. U. Hopton, H. Hollings, J. F. Ellis, and H. G. Simpson. It was again visited on May 8-24, 1945, by a combined British and American team consisting of R, Holroyd, M. A. G, Banks, D. A. Howes, A. J. V. Underwood, R. A. Taylor, W. F. Faragher, H. Schindler, and J. G. Allen. This team was later joined by J. F. Ellis and R. J. Morley. A third visit with particular reference to catalyst manufacture was made by W. F. Faragher and W. A. Horne, and the notes of these latest investigators have been taken into account in preparing the report. This report was edited by Dr. R. Holroyd.

Jan 1, 1946

By J. H. East, D. Harrington

"INTRODUCTION The tremendous expansion of industry during the war and the unprecedented demands for metals and minerals are reflected in the production and use of explosives during that period. The increased use of explosives brought added safety problems to industry because of the necessity of using men as blasters who were not entirely familiar with and some who were totally unfamiliar with the characteristics of some or all of the various explosives. A discussion of the characteristics of the ordinary types of explosives used in: industry should assist in giving a better understanding of the hazards attending their use. Explosives are compounded so they may be used with reasonable safety provided the user understands and follows the procedure recognized as standard safety practice. Short cuts and the failure to understand and use recognized safe practices, as well as the selection of explosives unstited for the work at hand, are all part of the safety problem,The extent to which explosives are used in the United States is shown by a study of the statistics compiled by the Bureau of Mines 4/ regarding them. Some of these statistics are shown below and serve as an indicator of the tremendous number of men engaged in the transportation, storage, and use of explosives. Theme men are exposed to the inherent hazards attending this occupation and they should be familiar with the recognized safe practices relative to explosives."

Sep 1, 1946

By L. H. Johnson

"INTRODUCTION The Pennsylvania anthracite industry produced 53 million net tons of anthracite during 1945. Fifty-one million tons was prepared for the commercial market (3), 3/ and 2 million tons (consisting of fine sizes) was used for colliery power consumption. Of the number of tons prepared for market, 17 million tons (33 1/3 percent) was prepared by the use of acid mine water treated with lime.Mine water from underground workings is pumped, drained, and stored in huge quantities. The mine-drainage systems in the anthracite region handle over 200 billion gallons of water annually, of which 150 billion gallons is pumped to the surface. More than 69 billion gallons of water is impounded in underground pools (1). Much of this water is employed for breaker use, dust-control installations; hydraulic backfilling, combatting mine fires; and aiding in the transportation of anthracite in gently dipping places where sheet iron is used Roos(4) estimates that 1,100 gallons of mine water is utilized in the preparation of anthracite mined."

Nov 1, 1946

By A. J. Martin

The Tri-State, or Joplin, zinc and lead mining district in south- western Missouri and adjoining, parts of Kansas and Oklahoma is one of the great mining districts of the world. It is in flat-lying or gently rolling agricultural country near industrial centers and coal, oil, and gas fields. The nearly horizontally, lying bedded rocks in which the ore bodies are found were originally limestone but are now largely chert containing minor percent- ages of dolomite and other minerals. The ore occurs in nearly vertical fis- sure zones, large and small, and in blanket (sheet-ground) deposits. The mining depth ranges from surface diggings to $50 feet. The average tenor of the ore mined, in recent years is much lower than that of ore produced in other large zinc and lead districts of the United States. Mining and mill- ing costs are low because of the shallowness of mining, amenability of ores to concentration, efficiency resulting from long experience of management and labor, and other factors. The operators comprise many small and medium-size producing companies and partnerships, as well as individuals and a few larger producers. About 7,000 men are employed in the mines and mills during normal industrial activity. The concentrates produced are sold f.o.b. the mill bins to local representatives of smelting companies at prices quoted on the Joplin market. The productive life of the district began with the discovery of lead near Joplin in 1848, but output was not large until after mining for zinc began near Granby in 1871. In most of the intervening years through 1945 the district produced more zinc than any other field, and it generally ranked third or fourth in the United States in lead production. Figures compiled from sources given later in this paper show a total output for the district from the beginning through 1945 of 20,755,020 tons of zinc concentrates and 3,334,057 tons of lead concentrates valued altogether at $1,110,058,581 in the mill bins. The output, in terms of recoverable metals, was 10,609,408 tons of zinc and 2,529,121 tons of lead, valued in all, at the average yearly market prices of the metals, at $1,691,282,419. During the 39 years (1907-1945) for which complete figures are available, the annual output of the district fluctuated from 23 to 66 percent of the total United States mine output of zinc and from 5 to 18 percent of the total lead; the averages for the period were 40 percent for zinc and 11 percent for lead. peak yearly production was attained in 1926, with an output of 423,800 tons of recoverable zinc and 102;117 tons of lead. Since that yoar the production rate has trended downward, accentuated at first by the depression in the thirties and later ameliorated somewhat under the stimulus of heavy demand and higher metal prices during World War II; the output in 1945 was 139,274 tons of recovorablo zinc and 23,556 tons of load. The above figures show the groat contribution made by the Tri-State district in the past toward the country's supplies of primary zinc and lead, cspecially zinc. However, the district's production is expected to decline both in quantity and in proportion of total United States mine output unless important discoveries are made. Ore exposed in mine workings and extensive exploratory drilling done in recent years within and without the productive The

Nov 1, 1946

By Thomas Fraser, M. G. Driessen

This report is one of a series written by members of the Solid Fuels Mission to Germany describing wartime developments in the mining , preparation, and utilization of coal . The mission was organized early in 1945 under the auspices of the Technical Industrial Intelligence Committee , which cooperated with a counterpart British Committee . Engineers from other allied countries cooperated in some of the investigations . The Solid Fuels Mission operated under the direction of a steering committee headed by Dr. C. J. Potter , deputy solid fuels administrator . The personnel of the mission consisted of H. F. Yancey , in charge , J. W. Buch , Thomas Fraser , L. L. Newman , and L. D. Schmidt , of the Bureau of Mines ; H. H. Lowry , Director of the Coal Research Laboratory , Carnegie Institute of Technology ; H. J. Rose , vice president and director of research , Bituminous Coal Research, Inc .; and F. H. Reed , chief chemist , Illinois Geological Survey . Over 50 reports were written by the members of the Solid Fuels Mission . These and microfilms of supporting data obtained in the course of the investigations are on file at the Bureau of Mines , Washington , D. C. where they are available for public examination . The Office of the Publication Board in the Department of Commerce is prepared to furnish photolith copies , photostats , or microfilm reproductions of all declassified reports . A Bibliography of Scientific and Industrial Reports is issued weekly by the Department of Commerce , Office of the Publication Board , and is sold by the Superintendent of Documents , Government Printing Office , Washington 25 , D. C. , on a subscription basis . An initial payment of 10 dollars will provide for approximately 9 months , and subscribers will be notified when additional remittance is necessary . All subscriptions will begin with volume 1 , No. 1 , unless ordered otherwise . The Bibliography covers all materials and subjects and gives instructions for obtaining the desired items . The reports of the Solid Fuels Mission relate to the following general subjects : Mining methods in the Ruhr district of Germany , with special reference to mechanical cutting and loading equipment , pneumatic packing , and Diesel mine locomotives ; activities of industrial research laboratories supported by the German coal and coke industry ; coal preparation in western Europe ; low-temperature carbonization processes ; metallurgical coke from weakly coking coals ; low- ash electrode carbon from coal ; new developments in the production of metallurgical coke and the utilization of gas and byproducts ; briquetting brown coal and bituminous coal without the use of binders ; recent engineering developments in gas turbines and steam generators , with special reference to use of coal ; German coal-fired heating and cooking stoves; and the commercial extraction of coal with solvents for production of synthetic liquid fuels or chemical products . Numerous reports on the activities of German synthetic - liquid -fuels plants and the plants for the production of synthesis gas from solid fuels are available in the same office as the Solid Fuels Reports . It is planned to publish in this series of Information Circulars the more important reports or combinations of reports prepared by the members of the Solid Fuels Mission . A similar series on synthetic - fuel activities is being prepared .

Nov 1, 1946

By STUART R. BRINKLEY, Ruth F. Brinkley

This same phonomonon of diffraction may be transposed into the X-ray domain. All that is necessary is to reduco, in the samo proportion, the wavo length of the light and the diameter of the particlo; thus, with radi- ations whose wave length is of the ordog of angstroms, the dimensions of the active particles go from 10 to 100 A that 18, the dimensions of col- loidal particlos. The evidence of this fact is shown by the following experimental schomo (fig. 1a): A narrow beam of X-rays passes through a thin layer of a modium containing micelles; the photographic film is placed a few centimeters behind the sample, and a small absorbing screen stops the direct beam in order to prevent its fogging the film. The intersect of the direct beam is surrounded by a narrow spot whose blackness decreases with the distance from the center. We will call this the spot of central diffusion (fig. 1b). The phenomenon, in spite of its relatively reat intensity, has been observed only by a few authors, who have simply given a qualitative description without attempting any quantitative de- ductions. This is due to the fact that observation of this phenonenon is not possible with the apparatus generally used to obtain X-ray diagrams, because the parasite foggings in the vicinity of the incident beam are sufficiently important to hide those produced by the sample. With the monochromator, however, used by us to obtain Debye-Sherer diagrams, this parasitic diffusion can be totally suppressed. In this way our attention was again directed to the spot of central diffraction, and we were led to make a detailed quaititative study of it.. then several papers have been published on this subject. Hosemann, using methods of calculation outlined by us, has extended them to the special case of fibrous substances, Kratky, on the other hand, starts from an entirely different theoretical point of view; ho examines the case, not of scattered particles, but of closely packed particles. 6ince We will now describe the experimental methods, summarize the calcu- lations needed in the elaboration of diagrams, and finally review the first results obtained in the vast domain of these new physical-chomical studies.

Dec 1, 1946

By Reinhardt Thiessen

"INTRODUCTION Coal is a complex substance consisting of many different constituents representing many chemical compounds, very few of which are known. It is homo genetic, however, in that it is derived almost entirely from plants. But plants as a whole are complex, being composed of a large number of tissues, each consisting of a large number of cells in a great number of arrangements and composed of a number of chemical compounds in great variety of proportions, and enclosing a large number of waste products representing a large number of' chemical compounds as cell contents. Coal should therefore be expected to be a very complex substance.That coals are formed from plants is no longer debated, but the manner in which coal was formed from the plants leaves many problems still unsolved. However, in general it is now conceded that all coals of all ranks and ages had their origin in deposits completely analogous to our peat deposits of today and that coal formation is a process that runs through the whole series, beginning with peat, and through, the various ranks of lignite, subbituminous, high-, medium-, and low-volatile bituminous, semianthracite, and anthracite in a related chain. In the study of coal, it is therefore of the utmost importance to study and to know not only the plants contributing but .also the manner in which they are transformed into the substances forming the deposits. It is therefore of the greatest value to review briefly the formation of :,eat as it is known today, and to inquire into the facts as to what plants contribute to peat, what parts and products prevail, what are the chemical compounds that enter and which prevail."

Jun 1, 1947

By Harold J. Rose

The economic situation in Switzerland during recent years has resulted in theoretical studies , engineering development work , and many commercial installations of ingenious methods for using energy more efficiently . The purpose of the present investigation was to learn of recent Swiss developments for the more effective use of coal , which comprises 98.9 percent of the romaining known mineral - fuel reserves of the United States .

Jun 1, 1947

By J. H. East

Potash is one of the essential chemicals used in fertilizing soil deficient in natural minerals . Europe uses a large tonnage of potash in the form of easily soluble salts , and this is particularly true of those countries where the natural minerals in the soil have been exhausted owing to intensive cropping of the land . The application of potash to the soil in these countries is essential if normal crops are to be obtained ; during the war , some European countries were unable to obtain sufficient potash , and productivity of the farming areas declined seriously . • The largest -known deposits of potash in the world ; with the possible. exception of Russia , occur in Germany , and the German output of processed salts constituted about 65 percent of world production prior to the war . The German potash-plant installations are large , modern , brick and steel construction and apparently built for a planned operation of many years . Two districts produced approximately 80 percent of the German potash; the Werra -Fulda district , near Vacha , had the largest production , and the Sudharz district , near Nordhausen and Sonderhausen , was second . (Fig . 1. ) Hannover and Stassfurt were two smaller producers . Potash fertilizers are rated in terms of potassium oxide (K20 ) . The usual basis for calculation of production or application of the salt is to reduce the potash content to 40 percent K₂0 .

May 1, 1947

By E. O. RHODES

Germany's' wartime coal-tar industry had two main branches, which can best be considered individually because their raw materials, operations, and distributions were almost completely separated. One branch, old and well-established, was concerned almost entirely with processing coal tar produced by the high-temperature carbonization of caking bituminous coal. Carbonization was effected principally in byproduct- coke ovens and to less extent in vertical, horizontal, and inclined retorts. The high-temperature tar was all processed in tar-distilling plants that handled high-temperature tar almost exclusively.

Sep 1, 1947

By William W. Odell

Certain gas-making processes are in use in Europe, particularly in Germany, which differ radically from those in common use in America. A number of them are of particular interest because they are different. The questions naturally arise: Are any of them applicable to the making of gas in this country and, if so, with what particular type of solid fuel? It is a fact that some of them were developed with consideration of a particular set of conditions and for the utilization of solid fuels available in Germany. The latter fuels, in certain characteristics, are unlike the high-rank fuels commonly used for making gas in the United States; therefore, in attempting to evaluate the various foreign- developed processes with regard to usefulness here, one must give attention to the particular conditions that will prevail in any specified case and also the characteristics and requirements of the process and generator under considera- tion. Three of the processes that were developed and put into commercial operation in Germany, and which have some characteristics in common, are con- sidered in particular in this publication; they are: 1. Lurgi pressure gasification process. 2. Winkler process. 3. The Leuna slagging-type producer-gas process. Each of these processes requires steam and oxygen as gas-maiding fluids. For a number of years, oxygen, has been used in a relatively pure state,. along with steam, in making gas in Germany, and many of the difficulties initi-. ally encountered have been overcome. Although it appears that oxygen recovered from air was first used in this manner as a method of utilizing a byproduct in a plant that used the nitrogen complement in the manufacture of ammonia; more recently, the oxygen was made particularly for the purpose. The fuels - brown coal or lignite used in processes 1 and 2 were not suitable for use in the older and commonly used intermittent-type water-gas generators, and it was necessary, therefore, to devise a different process for gasifying them. A gas of higher heating value than producer gas, was desired, and the use of oxygen (not air) along with steam made possible the production of the desired gas without nitrogen dilution, which characterizes producer gas. Operating data presented herein are based upon observations by, members of the Technical Oil Mission at plants in Germany, on records, and on information vocally given to members of the lässion, including the author, while visiting those plants, and they are believed to be reasonably correct; however, certain hasic observations, comparisons, and conclusions are. made by the author.

Nov 1, 1947

By P. M. Ambrose, A. C. Fieldner

This , the 11th annual report of research and technologic work conducted by the Bureau of Mines on coal and coal products , is issued following the closing of the Bureau's war work on fuels and contains references to most of the published articles containing results of war investigations . The few remaining papers will be discussed in next year's report . The trend in coal research in the Bureau of Mines was discussed in Mechaniza- tion . This publication , covering the period from the close of armed con- flict to resumption of normal coal -research activities , includes a section never previously presented . There is included for the first time a discussion of the Bureau's activities in the Liquid Fuels and Lubricants and the Solid Fuels Subcommittees of the Technical Industrial Intelligence Committee . This report does not replace the more comprehensive ones prepared by individual authors and listed as footnote references in this publication . purpose is to bring to the reader a résume of the work for the fiscal year ended June 30 , 1946. The material presented herein is based largely upon publications , but the results of some research and testing, which would not otherwise be published in the near future, are presented in detail .

Jul 1, 1947

By H. J. Rose, H. H. Lowry

Considerable information on the organization of German fuel research and recent developments was obtained and published in several combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee Reports. This material, although avail- able in the initial reports, has never been consolidated, so that it may not have come to the attention of many readers. This report gives a summation of the authors' observations at six different research laboratories.

Dec 1, 1947

By Robert J. Hundhausen, GEORGE M. GRISMER

This circular describes the methods and costs of deepening the Silver Summit three-compartment shaft in the Coeur d'Alene mining region of Idaho. A noteworthy rate of advance was achieved at this operation by the successful use of a mechanical shaft-mucking machine. The Silver Summit mine is 1 mile west from the town of Osburn, Idaho, via U. S. Highway 10. The adit-level portal of the mine is on the south slope of the Coeur d'Alene River Valley at an altitude of 2,700 feet. The Silver Summit shaft is 6,000 feet from the portal. In past years this shaft had been sunk from the adit level to a depth of 1,500 feet. During 1946 the Polaris Mining Co, deepened it to 3,095 feet. The work was done under a co- operative development agreement between the Silver Summit Mining Co. and the Polaris Mining Co.

Jan 1, 1948

By C. L. Severy

On the Pacific coast during World War II, a tremendous ship-building industry was developed, Early in the war it became impossible to obtain in- got or steel scrap for ship ballast. Magnetite, an oxide of iron, was sub- stituted as it fulfilled the requirements of weight for available space in the ships. Consequently, a new use for the western magnetite was rapidly developed.

Jan 1, 1948

By Robert J. Hundhausen

This information circular is one of a series of Bureau of Mines reports dealing with mining and milling methods and costs . It describes the operations at the Little Pittsburg mine in the Pine Creek area of the Coeur d'Alene mining region near Kellogg , Idaho . The mine and mill have been operated successfully from 1942 to the present .

Feb 1, 1948

By J. H. East, D. Harrington

"INTRODUCTION Shaft mines, coal and noncoal alike, have a common hoisting problem that remains largely unsolved - how to obtain a mechanical device that will suspend a cage or skip in a mine shaft if the hoisting rope should break or become detached from the cage or skip and that will function effectively under all conditions of service. Safety catches, or safety dogs, as they are commonly named, are installed on nearly all mine cages and many skips operating in American mines, but often, if the hoisting rope breaks, the cage or skip falls to the bottom of the shaft in spite of safety devices, causing much property damage and often fatalities.Available information relative to safety catches for mine cages and skips, desirable characteristics of safety catches and methods of testing safety catches to determine whether they are functioning correctly has been assembled in this publication for the convenience of those responsible for the safe operation of mine cages end skips and, more particularly, to focus attention on the need for a device that actually will stop and suspend a falling cage or skip under all conditions of use and do it without killing or maiming the occupants."

Feb 1, 1948