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By Herman Wotruba

Mercury emissions and other environmental impacts in small-scale gold mining are a world-wide problem. "Clean" or better: "Cleaner" technologies have -apart from being environmentally sound -to guarantee a higher income and better working conditions for the miners in order to have a chance for long-term acceptance. In small scale primary gold mining in several South American countries, a number of techniques have been adapted and improved so that they not only were accepted due to their efficiency and easy handling, but they could also significantly lower mercury emissions.

Jan 1, 2003

By N. Powell, P. Hunt, A. Wetherelt

This paper considers the current methods of analysis employed, the validity of assumptions made and the reliability of results and predictions derived; where appropriate, alternative methods are proposed which are more accurate and can be applied with greater confidence. In regard to data collection, new local blasting data has been analysed and conclusions drawn but, due to the restricted amount of space available, reference to data set A only has been made in the text. The problem of mathematical model choice is considered and results for two and three parameter power laws are compared. The very important matter of parameter determination is discussed fully, with major emphasis being placed on the comparative merits of log-log linear, log-log planar and direct power law regression. Supporting data analysis examples are included. Assumptions regarding the normality of ‘best-fit’ regression model residual distributions are questioned and the reliability of associated safety limit determinations is discussed.

Jan 1, 2003

By Y. Takasaki

For zinc hydrometallurgical extraction, reducing the electric power consumption of the electrowinning process is an important issue for energy savings. At the Zinc & Lead 2000 symposium, the authors suggested that by using the Pb-0.5%Ag-0.6%Ca alloy, the electrolysis energy can be decreased compared to the conventional Pb-0.9%Ag alloy. In this study, the corrosion behaviors of the Pb-Ag-Ca electrode in a sulfuric-acid electrolyte were investigated. Based on the results Or me Pb-0.5%Ag-0.6%Ca anode after 20 days of electrolysis, the bath voltage and the quantity of anode slime decreased compared to the Pb-I%Ag anode. Subsequently, beta-PbO2 on the electrode surface was detected by XRD and its peaks were sharper than the Pb-1 %Ag anode. Moreover, a dense beta-PbO2 layer on the 0.6%Ca a anode surface was observed. Therefore, it was suggested that the dense beta-PbO2 layer on the anode surface is one of the factors that leads to a lower bath voltage and decreasing quantity of anode slime.

Jan 1, 2003

By Thomas Mucho, Anthony Iannacchione

This marks the 100th year that the aggregate industry has been served by a national association. Of all the accomplishments this longstanding relationship has achieved, there is probably none greater than the progress made, in worker safety. Perhaps the best way to measure this success is to examine injury trends in the aggregate miner population. For example, in the first half of the 20th [ ] century, 16 quarry mining disasters (a "disaster" is an incident with five or more fatalities) claimed 157 miners between 1909 and 1952. The largest of these was the disaster at the Sandts Eddy Limestone Quarry near Allentown, Pa., on March 26, 1942, where 31 miners died of asphyxiation by fumes/explosion. Thankfully, no mining disasters have occurred in the aggregate industry since 1952. It is these kinds of information that help us characterize improvements in aggregate worker safety over the last 100 years.

Jan 1, 2003

By Mikula Adolf

Lead-tin solders are commonly used in electronic packaging due to their unique combination of electrical, chemical, physical, thermal and mechanical properties. Since it is known that lead and lead containing alloys cause great environmental concern and health hazards it is necessary to replace lead in solder materials. Besides the environmental concerns new technologies in electronic packaging require new and improved solders. In most cases the new solders will consist of temary or quarternary alloy systems, the main component will be tin or indium and the second element could be bismuth. silver, copper and gold and to improve certain properties a third element will be added. For a third element zinc, nickel, antimony and aluminum can be considered. This report will concentrate on solders containing zinc as an environmental safe. element.

Jan 1, 2003

By H. Castillo

This paper describes the computer simulation of thermal stress fields generated in the quenching of the ns 415 H Steel automotive parts (Valve Lifters), running the ANSYS Multiphysics software of finite element (FEM). Simulation was performed introducing residual stress measurements on specific values areas, like internal pressure condition in the material. The stress condition effect in the material and the properties as temperature function data, were introduced to the FEM software. The thermal stress simulation was made on the 2D system. The parts were austenized to 850 900 °C and then oil quenched, tempered at 150 -200°C, and air cooled. The X-Ray diffraction technique was made to take measurements from residual stresses on valve lifters surfaces. The results analysis showed the ideal stress condition necessary in raw material to reduce the scrap percent in grind operations after hardening heat treating process. Keywords: Thermal Stresses, Temperature profile, Computer Simulation, Finite element analysis, Quenching of steel, Residual Stresses

Jan 1, 2003

By Isaak I. Maksimov, Tatyana E. Koltunova, Mikhail F. Yemelyanov, Liudmila A. Otrozhdyonnova

"INTRODUCTIONMetals losses amount up to 50% in coarse fractions in (>100 µm) and composite particles, and to 20- 25% in fine fractions (<10 µm) at non-ferrous floatation concentrating plants of the CIS. Therefore, reduction of metals losses in difficult fractions is of high significance.IMPROVEMENT OF FLOATABILITY OF COARSE AND COMPOSITE PARTICLESReagent regimes with application of strong collectors – xanthates ?5-?8, combination of butyl xanthates and aerofloats ?10-?12, butyl xanthates with hydrocarbons are proposed for this purpose. Application of such reagent regimes for copper and copper-molybdenum ores permitted to increase copper and molybdenum recovery by 0.5-3.9%.Studies, performed by means of specially designed non-frothing flotation machine with independently controlled agitation intensity and narrow size-ranges of air bubbles, established that the best results are achieved with employment of bubbles of 0.5-0.8 mm size regarding particles of any size, with small amounts of up to 2 mm size “transport” bubbles to be expediently used for floatation of coarse particles.Energy dissipation in the main volume of floatation cells must be lower than 0.2-0.25 m2/s3.Performed experiments permitted to formulate requirements to development of machine for floatation of coarse and composite particles. Such floatation machine with volume of 8.5 m3 provided for weak agitation in the main volume of floatation cell and uniform distribution of coarse particles throughout the depth owing to establishing of pulp circulation with upward flows. In addition, in the upper part of floatation cell where agitation is considerably weaker, favorable conditions are created for attachment of particles to bubbles. Testing of this floatation machine demonstrated a 7.5% increase in recovery of +0.2 mm particles in pyrite floatation and a 12-14% increase in recovery of +0.2 mm particles in apatite floatation as compared with a reference floatation machine."

Jan 1, 2003

By Graeme Heyes, Warren J. Bruckard, Michael A. Somerville

"A limited series of laboratory batch flotation tests was conducted on a suite of calcium-ferrite-based slags made in laboratory smelting trials. The smelting tests were conducted as part of a wider CSIRO Minerals’ research project aimed at developing a single-stage continuous copper-making process. The objective of the flotation work was to maximise copper recovery and iron rejection from slags made in the process.The slags treated included a reduced low copper slag, an oxidised high copper slag composite, and a very reduced low copper self-pulverising slag. The copper content of the slags varied from 2.9% to 14% Cu. The copper was present as metallic copper, oxide copper and copper-calcium ferrite phases with the phase mix related to smelting conditions. The slags were crushed, ground, wet-screened at 355 or 210 µm to remove coarse metallic particles of copper, and floated at natural pH (about pH 11) using reagents and conditions appropriate for the selective recovery of the copper phases.In rougher/scavenger tests on the reduced low copper and self-pulverising slags copper recoveries above 92% were obtained with copper enrichment ratios varying between 2.3 and 2.9. For the oxidised high copper slag copper recoveries were poorer - only 47% of the copper was recovered with an enrichment ratio of 3.3. The presence of the slow floating copper-ferrite phases in the slags limited further (selective) copper recovery. Ageing of the high copper slag, that is, a significant delay between grinding and flotation, resulted in a deterioration of the copper flotation response.The critical parameter affecting the flotation of copper from direct converting slags was found to be the form of the copper in the slag. Slags containing a higher proportion of the more desirable form of copper for flotation will provide the best opportunity for high copper recoveries to be consistently obtained, allowing improvements in the economics of the overall copper-making process."

Jan 1, 2003

By Tony Lipiec, Greg Gosson

"When it comes to new mines being developed, there is a general industry consensus that most low-hanging fruit has been picked. Many projects currently in the mine development pipeline have been around for decades, but were held back because of technical challenges. Future development of these deposits will likely require access to the public capital markets, and in Canada that means providing scientific and technical disclosure on these deposits in compliance with NI 43-101. As many of these “challenged” projects have metallurgical issues, the companies that own the projects need to ensure their metallurgical Qualified Persons provide transparent disclosure regarding proposed solutions to those issues.This paper provides an overview of the disclosure requirements under NI 43-101 that are pertinent to metallurgists, and other Qualified Persons who prepare technical disclosure regarding the metallurgical characteristics of a mineral project. It lists the triggers for a technical report under NI 43-101 and Canadian stock exchange policies, and identifies the sections of the report that should involve input from a metallurgist or process engineer. It briefly outlines new civil liabilities under Canadian securities laws that increase the possible consequences for not complying with the technical disclosure standards.These materials are provided for general information purposes only and do not constitute legal advice. Readers are advised to seek specific legal advice from their own legal counsel in relation to any decision or course of action contemplated."

Jan 1, 2003

By V. Korobko, M. Byantogtokh, N. Byambadorzh, V. Bysov

A three-stage operative planning of mining operations in ore opencasts is considered. The hierarchy of monthly-weekly, weekly-daily, daily-shift planning is offered. For the fastest elimination and deviations in problematic situations a level is analysed and weekly-daily or monthly-weekly operative plans are being constantly updated. Operative planning is formulated on information received of preparation and working of mining panels. The electronic maps of these panels are considered for automated operative planning. On the data of the registration of blasthole drillings on a panel, the position of blasthole entry, their depth and the number of a line are determined. The geologist specifies boundaries of ore grades by the bored silt. The qualitative characteristics of ores are determined by the chemical analysis of slime or magnetic logging of blastholes. The missing geologic information is obtained by interpolation on the data of detailed and operational explorations. During working of the mining panel the technologists mark the movement of shovels, associating this movement to blastholes. For this purpose technological attributes are used: when was the blasthole drilled, what drill-rig participated in drilling, what shovel was used and when was it worked? Around each blasthole the zone of its influence is built up. It represents a discrete, elementary volume of ore or waste. The discrete form of the data is most convenient, as it allows step-by-step methods to be employed of the scheduled tasks in many and various combinations. The account panel working technology avoids ‘combination’ explosions. The elementary blocks should be placed in a trajectory of shovel movement and the trajectory can not be arbitrary. It’s determined by the technological rules of extracting and loading of mine mass. In linking to blastholes, the trajectory of shovels is simulated by the sum of step-by-step moving from one elementary block to another. For this purpose a geometrical linkage of blastholes is used. At a railway haulage, or complete mining with truck haulage, the trajectory of movement is a shuttle along the front of operations in the panel. At a selective mining of ores the number of possible directions is limited to three: moving of a shovel by idle running along the front of operations in the panel, frontal pull all the way down of the panel, and withdrawal. The technologically acceptable trajectories of shovel movement are stored for the following estimation and selection of the best. The estimation is carried out on mathematical models with criteria on the method of the least squares of deviations based on preset parameters from the plan, uniform loading of shovels, and mixing of ore at unloading points. The equations of balance type and directive parameters of the plan, as well as technological restrictions of solid and of elementary blocks within the limits of a trajectory are the restrictions of the model. Depending on an industrial situation it is possible to choose one of the predetermined models. The presented technique is used for longitudinal shovel bench at the Erdenet ore-dressing company.

Jan 1, 2003

By Stefan Mutz, Thomas Pretz, Jörg Julius, Frank Hilbk-Kortenbruck, Aachen, Hartmut Harbeck

"The annual global production of primary aluminium was about 22 million tons in the year 2000. This represents the second largest production rate in the world market after steel. Experts are predicting that the global demand for aluminium will rise in the near future.In contrast to other metals such as copper, the recycling of aluminium is considered relatively difficult. There are two main alloying groups, namely cast and wrought. In the case of aluminium it is important that the constituents within the scrap aluminium to be smelted are clearly identified. Within the secondary remelting process alloying does take place, but a removal of unwanted metal constituents is problematic. Therefore mixed aluminium scrap (not genuine in-house collected material) can only be used to produce cast aluminium. Thus, in other words a down-cycling of wrought (extrusions and rolled) products occurs. However, in spite of these difficulties there is an increasing trend to produce aluminium from secondary scrap (approx. 35% in Germany). Similar trends have been identified in the USA and other industrialised countries. This development is mainly caused by the high energy consumption for the production of aluminium from bauxite. Producing aluminium from scrap is saving about 95 % of the energy in comparison to the processing of primary raw materials.An improvement in sorting technology is necessary to separate wrought and cast alloys of aluminium as the absolute amount of recovery from old scrap is higher than the demand for cast.This contribution presents some alternative methods, utilizing automatic picking technologies, which will be used to separate secondary aluminium in the future. During the recent years, some major progresses have been made in automatic picking technologies for different applications in the processing of primary and secondary materials.For the sorting of aluminium scrap a special additional sensor will be necessary. The best detection will ultimately be based on online elemental analysis of single particles. First investigations in the field of laser based systems for these applications have already been performed several years ago. One of the laser based techniques is the laserinduced breakdown spectrometry (LIBS)."

Jan 1, 2003

By R. W. Smith, K. A. Altman

The use of activated alumina for the removal of selenium from heap leach detoxification solutions was studied at a laboratory scale. Three different aluminas were studied, one unmodified and two chemically modified to function better in a basic pH range. The best performer, Discovery Chemicals DD-6, readily accumulated selenium oxyanions. Furthermore, it could be stripped of selenium and several metals by a mild caustic solution (pH 11.5 – 12.0) and regenerated for further use. Tests using - 600 µm, + 300 µm (28 x 48 mesh) material indicated that 96 % could be removed from solution and using – 1.18mm, + 600 µm (14 x 28 mesh) material 91 % could be removed. However, soluble silica can accumulate on the activated alumina and subsequently interfere with its regeneration and should be removed from the detox solution prior to use of the adsorbent.

Jan 1, 2003

By Charles Washburn

The authors review mercury sources, and contaminant streams, with particular emphasis on mercury that is extracted from precious metal ores. The design and operation of both large and small mercury distillation facilities are detailed. The relevant properties and characteristics of mercury and mercury vapor are presented. Facility engineering with respect to industrial hygiene, area ventilation, and material handling is presented.

Jan 1, 2003

By Harri J. Lehto, Marja I. Oja

"The purpose of grinding circuits is to produce a particle size distribution that has as much as possible the wanted particle size class. In practise, however, the production of the wanted size class is not at all as simple as it sounds. In the case of industrial minerals for example the end user may give very tight specifications for the particle size distribution and for the chemical composition of the product. This leads in many cases to a very demanding grinding process, if we want to reach and maintain these specifications. In other words, the required size distribution is not necessary the best possible for the chemical composition.Screen models aim to predict the size distribution and flow of the products when a feed size distribution, feed tonnage, and grade efficiency curve are known. The approach used in this study was to select the most suitable empirical model for classification. Suitability of the existing models has been evaluated and accuracy compared. The tests showed that best grade efficiency model was the Rosin-Rammler model.The performance of a screen was evaluated in order to minimize the amount of fine material in the screen overflow. The experiments were carried out using Derrick single-deck screen, first alone with recycling and then in the closed circuit with a rod mill using two different scales. The separate screen tests showed the expected behaviour of the grade efficiency curves. In the pilot tests the Leonard screen efficiencies stayed almost constant. This suggests that the screen works better in a milling circuit. However the loading of the screen turned the product of the mill coarser that helped screening. The grade efficiencies obtained from the pilot tests had the same general shape. The regression analysis of the pilot test runs did not give an acceptable correlation for the parameters. This suggests that pilot tests cannot be directly used to scale or to optimise industrial milling circuits. However they can be used to predict the trends of behaviour of an industrial circuit."

Jan 1, 2003

By Lon Santis

This paper analyzes 110 serious accidents that occurred during the use of commercial explosives in mining, construction, and other industries since 1992. Data from the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), the Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME) members’ reports, and media reports were used. Only accidents that resulted in a fatality, significant lost work time, or injury to the public were considered in this analysis. The accident data were analyzed for trends in frequency, type of industry, cause, type of individual harmed, and geographical region. Although the data showed that explosives accidents are decreasing in frequency, still, 29 people were killed and 134 injured. Eightyfive of the accidents occurred in mining, 17 occurred in construction, and 8 occurred in other industries including oil recovery, seismic exploration, agriculture, logging, boiler cleaning, and avalanche blasting. As other studies have shown, flyrock and failure of blast area security caused over half of the accidents. Mishandling, misfires, or fumes caused just over one-third of the accidents. Lightning and drilling into explosives were responsible for the remainder of accidents.

Jan 1, 2003

By George S. Dulikravich

An advanced semi-stochastic algorithm for constrained multi-objective optimization has been adapted and combined with experimental testing and verification to determine optimum concentrations of aJ10ying elements in heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant H-Series austenitic stainless steel alloys. The objective was to simultaneously maximize a number of alloy&apos;s mechanical properties. This research will result in a rigorous tool for the design of high-strength H-Series steels and other types of alloys unattainable by any means existing at the present time. Such a material-by-design tool will also be able to reduce or minimize the need for the addition of expensive elements such as Cr, Ni, Co, Nb, Ti, V, etc. and still obtain the optimum properties of an aJ1oy.

Jan 1, 2003

By Charlene Gokhale

Geopolymerisation has emerged during the last few years as an industrial and ecological approach to construction and waste management. By utilizing waste materials and their reactive properties, it is now possible to create geopolymers systems that not only mechanically durable enough to be used as construction materials but are also potential stable immobilisation systems for toxic waste. Previous studies by Van Jaarsveld et al. (1997) and Van Jaarsveld et al. (1998) have reported on the numerous applications of geopolymers in the immobilisation of toxic metals. Research into the possible utilisation of geopolymers as an encapsulation media for organic waste has however been rare. This paper therefore provides an insight into the possible utilisation of geopolymers as a binder for hazardous organic materials.

Jan 1, 2003

By Craig Roberts

"While various methods are available to estimate a mining project's value, value is only established through a transaction. Comparable methods allow the value estimated for a mining project to be benchmarked against mining project values established in the market. Comparable methods thus are a key tool for ensuring value estimates are congruent with what the market would actually pay. For example, if the value estimated for a mining project using discounted cash flow analysis differs significantly from the value implied using comparable market methods, the valuator may be using metal price or discount rate assumptions that differ significantly from those the market is currently willing to pay for.The paper provides an overview of market comparable valuation approaches, and discusses some of the difficulties and limitations that arise in using these approaches. The types of market values that are typically utilised are discussed, including asset sale prices, share prices (market capitalisations), and values established in corporate mergers and acquisitions. Topics discussed include methods used in estimating a mining project's value based on the market value of the company that holds the asset, and limitations that arise because of unique features of mining projects and of companies that hold them.It is concluded that market comparable and fundamental (e.g. NPV) approaches to project valuation should not be viewed as alternative approaches to estimating project value, but rather can and should be integrated to derive a single value estimate based on both market andfandamental data. A method for integrating these approaches is discussed, and illustrated by example."

Jan 1, 2003

By M Logsdon, B Johnson, M Fordham

The underground Neves Corvo copper-tin mine in southern Portugal currently disposes of its tailings in a ætraditionalÆ wet tailings impoundment. With the development of new technologies for preparation and transport of thickened tailings or paste, alternative tailings disposal options have become available that provide a more sustainable water management system and a higher degree of environmental protection. In addition, growing European resistance towards subaqueous disposal may well result in mandatory use of dry disposal methods in the near future. Twenty-four tailings disposal alternatives were evaluated through a cost-effective and easily-implementable bench-scale geochemical screening program conducted at site. Since the tailings are pyrite-rich and highly acid generating, particular emphasis was placed on monitoring likely indicators of sulfide oxidation under the various simulated disposal scenarios. Dependent parameters investigated as part of the program included moisture content, use of alkaline additives (lime, cement), use of a bactericide, and agitation. Response parameters included paste pH, specific conductance, and temperature as indicators of oxidation. The testing was carried out for 30 weeks. Results indicate that a number of relationships between the geochemical stability of the samples (ie sulfide oxidation) and sample characteristics can be readily identified. Based on the results of the screening program, a limited number of tailings mixtures have been selected for further long-term testing in field weathering cells to aid in the identification of the optimal mix design for future tailings disposal at the Neves Corvo Mine. This type of testing provides an inexpensive and reliable methodology for semi-quantitative comparison between tailings disposal alternatives, in particular at locations where more rigorous evaluation through long-term, fully replicated testing is not immediately feasible.

Jan 1, 2003

By Jose Bengoa

Low metal prices and environmental restrictions are always a challenge for copper smelters operation and its productivity. Thus, in order to reduce production costs and control gas emissions, improvements of the Teniente Converter (CT) operation were made at 110 Smelter Plant of Southern Peru Copper Co" 110, Peru, and the main objective was to increase its capacity for smelting copper concentrates without affecting normal operation, The present work eorresponds to a recent study conducted during the normal industrial operation of the Teniente Converter in this plant and, it shows the effect of increasing air oxygen enrichment from 28 to 34% on its productivity. The results show an increasing of concentrate smelting rate from 800 to 1370 tpd and hence a notorious improving in copper production, and practically no effect on the refractory consumption. The increment of the concentrate throughput, increases also the SO2 concentration and the sulfuric acid production, showing the effort done by this operation in order to accomplish the environmental Peruvian regulation,

Jan 1, 2003