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By Douglas A. Anderson

It is quite common for people exposed to blast vibrations to ask questions such as "How big was that blast on the Richter Scale?" Although it is tempting to dismiss such questions out of hand, for the lay person it is understandable that something which shakes their house should have some sort of measure attached to it. Since a layman doesn't usually know about particle velocity, frequency or the other terms used in describing and regulating blast vibration, the Richter Scale is usually the only measure they can relate to.

Jan 1, 1994

By J. Chao, C. Tan, N. Stubina

"Since J978, Falconbridge Limited has operated two electric furnaces at its nickel-copper smelter in Sudbury. As part of its S02 Abatement Program, the smelter has undergone many changes over the last seven years.This paper describes the impact of these changes on the operation of the furnaces. Some of the topics to be covered include: the installation of sidewall copper coolers; current operating conditions; and furnace heat and mass balances. HistoricalFalconbridge began smelting ores in the Sudbury area in 1930. The original smelter consisted of a 1.3 m by 3 m blast furnace and two 4 m by 6 m converters. The blast furnace was supplied with untreated mine are and molten slag/matte was discharged into a round settler.In 1933 the smelter began treating flotation concentrates. The concentrates were mixed with fine magnetic ore and flue dust, then sintered on down-draught Dwight Lloyd machines. This provided an agglomerate suitable for furnace burden which was charged to the blast furnace while still hot.Between 1930 and 1954 nickel production was increased by lengthening the 3 m furnace to 4.6 m, then to 6 m, and later by constructing additional furnaces. By 1958, the plant consisted of one 7.5 m blast furnace, a settler, and three 4 m by 9 m converters."

Jan 1, 1994

By S. Peng, Vaughan R. Voller

"Free boundary problems are a common occurrence in materials processing operations. An important example is the filling of material into molds. This paper looks at filling problems associated with polymer processing, in particular Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) and Compression Molding. A general, single governing equation is developed which on numerical solution provides predictions for the position of the polymer front in the mold during filling. Both fixed and deforming finite element solutions are developed. Application to polymer filling test problems reveal that the fixed and deforming grid scheme are accurate and compare closely with each other.IntroductionProblems arising from the analysis of material processing operations often involve the tracking of a moving boundary, on which a balance conditions needs to be met, or the locating of a free surface that defines the solution domain. Material processing examples of so called ""free and moving boundary problems"" include; the tracking of solidification/melting fronts[l], the tracking of the metal/gas interface during the filling of a mold[2] and location and shape of a skull (freeze line) in a melting furnace[3].Computational solution of free and moving boundary problems usually fit into one of two classes, viz.1. Fixed grid scheme: In which the spatial domain is covered by a fixed grid (mesh) of node points and the solution uses an auxiliary variable (e.g. a local liquid fraction) to track the moving boundary or locate the free surface.2. Deforming grid scheme: In which the grid in the spatial domain is continuously deformed (or adapted in a steady state problem) such that a specified set of grid points lie on the moving boundary or the free surface.Details on the basic underlying features in these two classes of solution can be found in the excellent monograph by Crank [4]."

Jan 1, 1994

By Steven C. Torma

The present article reviews some of the technologies available for recycling high-energy yield explosives loaded projectiles. These activities lead to reduction of military ammunition stockpiles and their conversion into commercial and industrial applications. The recycling technologies involve dismantling and separation of ammunition components into recyclable metals, plastics, paper and explosive materials. The metal 1 ic components will be sent to smelters, where they will be converted to products that can be used in a variety of industries, such as construction, automotive, housing and so on. Plastics and paper will be recycled and reused. Explosives will be recycled to be used for industrial purposes in the mining industry. Propellants (ammonium nitrate and ammonium perchlorate) can be ground to small particle size and treated to be used in the agricultural industry as fertilizer. In addition, some of the excess explosive material recovered in the demilitarization process may be incinerated to produce energy for steam production for heating purposes, or for production of electricity. Furthermore, this article reviews the developments in the bioremediation of explosive contaminated soils and industrial effluents.

Jan 1, 1994

By J. Riefenberg

U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) researchers are developing a personal computer-based hazard mapping system for use in underground coal mines. Hazard mapping is rapidly gaining interest as delineating areas of possible instability is becoming more complex. The development of a hazard map is based on the consensus that combined effects of local and regional stresses, roof, floor, and rib quality, geology, faulting, presence of ground water, etc., all contribute to stability of the ground. In order to demonstrate the concept, a hazard map was developed that combined stresses anticipated to occur in a multiseam setting using numerical modeling, and the newly developed Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR) where roof quality ratings in untested areas were modeled using geostatistical methods. Ten borescope readings from an underground mine were used to compute CMRR's for the geostatistical analysis. CMRR's for the mine ranged from 57 to 77, and are considered in the moderate to strong range. A hazard map was developed by combining the stress effects of interseam mining, scaled to weigh equally with CMRR's, and CMRR geostatistical analysis results. This hazard map demonstrates a synergistic effect between the mining-induced stress fields and the roof quality ratings, indicating, as expected, a greater hazard index in areas of high stress and lesser roof quality.

Jan 1, 1994

By Robert B. Parsons

"Canada doesn't really have a tax system for mining - it has eleven separate tax systems! The consequent maze adds some undefinable margin of difficulty to making investment decisions in Canada. But, this 11U1Ze is not likely to be simplified. Solution: learn it and sell it! Intricate Network of Winding PathwaysWebster's New World Dictionary defines the word ""maze"" as follows: ""a confusing, intricate network of winding pathways; labyrinth ... a state of confusion or bewilderment"". Webster's does not go on to give an example of a maze, but the dictionary could easily have referred to the taxation of a Canadian mining operation. The uninitiated would almost certainly look upon such taxation as a maze of the most perplexing sort.Twenty years ago, Canada's tax system was really quite simple. It is true that Canadian mining profits were subject to three levels of taxation (federal income tax, provincial income tax, and provincial mining tax), but this didn't pose a problem. Prior to 1974, at least the provincial income tax systems were somewhat the same in terms of rules .and rates, and even the provincial mining tax systems resembled one another. Mining profits were subject to pretty much the same rules, no matter what province or territory hosted the mine. Those were the “good old days” one could even dare to generalize about tax rates without fear of being labelled an imbecile!"

Jan 1, 1994

By F. Grajales Muñoz

The Ciénega project, now under construction by Peñoles group, is located in the mountains of northwest Durango, Mexico. The gold and silver deposits are found in a 4-km (2.5mile) long system of veins. An underground operation will be built. The planned 1 kt/ d (1100 stpd) process plant will contain a countercurrent cyanide circuit for oxide ore and a flotation circuit for sulfide ore. Considerable resources have been devoted to the development of infrastructure in the isolated location, as well as for the mitigation of environmental impacts. Startup is scheduled for the third quarter of 1994. Ciénega’s ore bodies consist of quartz veins containing gold, silver, lead and zinc values. The vein thicknesses vary from 2 to 10 m (6.5 to 33 ft) with a northwest trend and nearby vertical dip. Veins are hosted in Tertiary volcanic rocks. The district has intermittently been explored since 1971 by Penoles. After the third series of diamond drilling and direct development work on vein, Peñoles decided to begin project construction.

Jan 1, 1994

By P. C. O. Chukabarah

Many aerodynamic and thermodynamic properties, such as temperature, pressure, velocity and density vary widely, and in random spatial and temporal manner for a given underground mine environment. Such variabilities are seldom evaluated statistically, even though the relevant theories and principles for such an approach are both available and feasible. The main purpose of this paper was to introduce the new methodology of applying aerostatistics to the analysis of multiple fan system in mine aerology and/or ventilation. Pertinent data were obtained from a small multilevel coal mine. Results proved and confirmed that aerostatistical methodologies are computationally more efficient, grounded in solid engineering statistical theories, and can be used to analyze networked parameters in mine environmental engineering.

Jan 1, 1994

By Liane L. M. Kadnuck

This report summarizes the results of a hydrologic research study conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) in cooperation with Energy West Mining Co. at the Deer Creek and Cottonwood Mines, near Orangeville, UT. The USBM evaluated hydrologic and overburden failure data to assess the response of local ground water to underground coal mining in single-and multiple-seam conditions. Fourteen springs located over the two mines were investigated in the study along with overburden failure response caused by longwall panel extraction. Spring discharge was compared to climatic variation and time of undermining to quantify response to undermining. Spring discharge had been reduced owing to below-normal precipitation during the period evaluated. The response of springs to mining in the vicinity was influenced in part by the thick overburden present at the study site the presence of hydrophilic clays and mudstones in the overburden stratigraphy, and elevation of the springs above mine level, which buffered the effects of undermining.

Jan 1, 1994

By J B. Taylor

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are being increasingly used by the mineral exploration industry in the search for new ore deposits. A mineral exploration GIS links geological and geophysical data by virtue of their geographic location in a digital map setting. Geological and geophysical data are categorised into a number of themes or layers within a mineral exploration GIS. These layers may include polygonal information such as rock type and tenements, line information such as faults and fold axes, point information such as mines and mineral occurences, and images such as gridded geochemistry and aeromagnetics. A mineral exploration GIS is a powerful tool to help the explorationist comprehend the spatial associations and interrelationships of his/her data. These spatial associations can be integrated with a mineral genesis model, to create a mineral prospectivity map to more effectively target exploration. Arguably a competent geologist who has a good understanding of the genesis of the local ore deposit types and knows their local geology backwards could intuitively derive a mineral prospectivity map. However, in an era of rapid data accumulation from many different disciplines, the ability to assimilate and understand is a huge task for any individual. A mineral exploration GIS enables the explorationist to spend more time analysing data and testing ideas, rather than finding and manipulating data into compatible formats.

Jan 1, 1994

Jan 1, 1994

By W. K. Connor, O&apos

The U.S. Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL), conducted over 30 hours of melting tests to vitrify simulated low-level radioactive wastes from the INEL Radioactive Waste Management Complex (RWMC). Five separate waste compositions were investigated, each consisting of noncontarninated soil from the RWMC and surrogate materials used to simulate the actual buried wastes. The RWMC soil and five waste compositions were melted in a 50-lb, single-phase electric arc furnace with a water-cooled shell. These tests were conducted to determine melting parameters in preparation for a large-scale melting campaign to be conducted in the Bureau's 1-metric ton (mt), water-cooled-wall, 3-phase electric arc fumace. Bulk chemical composition was determined for each of the feed materials and for the slag, metal, fume solids, and offgas furnace products, and distributions were calculated for the key elements. The material balance for the furnace operation indicates that from 63 to 84 pct of the feed reported to the slag. Cerium, used as the surrogate for the radionuclides in the wastes, demonstrated an extremely strong affinity for the slag product. Although slag temperatures as low as 1250° C were recorded when melting the RWMC soil, temperatures in excess of 1600° C were necessary to achieve the fluidity required for a successful slag tap.

Jan 1, 1994

By L. L. Sutter

Fly ash is a by-product produced from the combustion of most hels including municipal solid waste. Currently, most combustion residuals are disposed of in landfills at a continually increasing cost and with questionable impact on the environment. Due to the presence of heavy metal compounds, municipal waste combustor (MWC) fly ash has the potential to leach these metals (e.g., lead and cadmium) above regulatory limits. The heterogeneous nature of MWC fly ash makes detailed characterization difficult. This research focuses on the identification of lead compounds in MWC fly ash. Samples obtained from the Olmsted Waste-to-Energy Facility in Rochester, Minnesota were examined in this study. The fly ash was fractionated into six size ranges and prepared as geological thin sections for analysis. The worked discussed in this paper involves using an electron microprobe analyzer to determine phase composition in MWC fly ash. In addition, backscattered electron imaging, digital image processing, and mineral liberation analysis software were used to determine phase distributions and phase associations as a function of particle size. Several lead containing compounds in several forms are identified. The results of this study show that lead can be identified in small sectioned particles which would not be apparent using normal backscattered electron imaging.

Jan 1, 1994

By S. M. Copley, M. Yankova, E. Y. Yankov, J. A. Todd

"Nanophased coupled growth structures, with spacings of -10 nm, have been observed in banded microstructures produced by laser melting hypoeutectic Ag-Cu alloys. These coupled growth structures comprised a Cu-rich phase of width - 1 nm and a Ag-rich phase of width - 9 nm. In this paper, microstructural observations of nanophased coupled growth structures in hypo eutectic AgCu alloys are presented. Laser beam velocities for the transition from banded to microsegregation free microstructures are modelled and compared with experimental values. Models are presented to show that, at a critical undercooling, initial growth of a Ag-rich, metastable, extended solid solution is rapid but slows to a halt as copper is partitioned into the liquid at the solid/liquid interface. Following nucleation, the coupled growth structure then grows until the partitioned copper is consumed, at which point growth of the Ag-rich solid solution is again accelerated. This cycle then repeats resulting in banded microstructures comprised of 750 nm of the Ag-rich extended, metastable solid solution, followed by 250 nm of the coupled growth structure.1. Structural Studies of Laser Melted and Resolidified TrailsPresented here are observations of laser melted and resolidified trails in Ag-Cu alloys obtained at beam velocities ranging from 0.7 to 34 cm S·I. When the laser beam is scanned along the surface (positive x-direction) with a velocity Vb a melt pool with the shape given in Fig. 1a moves with the beam. The isotherms move with the velocity, Vi,. = Vb cos.p. Calculations employing the thermal analysis of Kou, Hsu and Mehrabian [1] for the beam velocities of this investigation and for the thermal properties of AgCu alloys, indicated that, .p, the angle between the isotherm velocity and beam velocity should be small at the surface where microstructural studies were made. This prediction was supported by observations of trail cross-sections. Based on these observations, and the calculations which include latent heat effects, the isotherm velocity for observations near the surface in our investigation was taken to be 27 cm S-I."

Jan 1, 1994

By Kathleen M. Kowalski

This research explores the emergence of leadership in a crisis situation. The study by the U.S. Bureau of Mines focuses on three underground mine fires and the resulting evacuations. The subjects for this study are 48 coal miners, who evacuated the mines as part of eight escape groups, The subjects described their escape during an open-ended interview. Data were coded according to: (a) evidence of leadership behavior, (b) evidence of lack of leadership behavior, and (c) characteristics of the individual in each group who led the subjects out of the mine. During analyses, attributes of the leaders, who facilitated the escapes, were noted and compared as were instances of lack of leadership. The structure of the group leadership before the crisis was compared with the reality of the leadership during the crisis. Some groups experienced an apparent breakdown of leadership during their escape, while others witnessed the emergence of leadership. Consensus characteristics of the leaders, who emerged during these crises, are discussed and generalizations drawn. Research into leadership during emergency escapes is needed to provide information for training in prevention, escape, and rescue. The authors suggest questions for further investigation and topics for further inquiry into the area of leadership evolvement during crisis.

Jan 1, 1994

To develop a magnetic levitation transport system that can reduce the cost and improve safety in transporting coal from the face of underground coal mines to the surface. Background Many conventional mining operations use conveyor belts to transport coal from an underground face to the surface of the mine. The Mag-Lev Transport System design replaces conveyor belts with magnetically levitated coal haulage containers moving through a dedicated pipe¬line. Cost estimates, based on current design data, show the Mag-Lev Transport System would have operating and capital costs that are less than or equal to those of an equivalent-capacity conveyor belt system. The safety hazards associated with conveyor belt systems include exposure to moving parts and pinch points, potential fire hazards due to mechanical friction, and the exposure of miners to respirable dust. These hazards would be eliminated or significantly reduced by this novel technology. Approach The Mag-Lev Transport System uses magnetic levitation technology that allows noncontact, frictionless conveyance of a levitated body within a dedicated transit corridor. The mag-lev technology utilizes two types of permanent magnets coupled with an electronic position control system to achieve noncontact levitation. Levitation is provided by neodymium-iron boron (NdFeB) magnets mounted in the base of the haulage containers and inexpensive ceramic-5 magnets located in the bed of the transit corridor. An electronic position control system is used to overcome the inherent instability of the repelling permanent magnets. Proximity sensors, a signal processing circuit, electromagnetic actuators, and fixed ferrous side rails are the major components of the positioning system.

Jan 1, 1994

By Selischop F, Tredoux M

The distribution of platinum-group elements (pGEs) has been investigated in matte and slag samples from Waterval Smelter (Rustenburg Platinum Mines). The study showed that a strong preference of PGEs for alloy phases in matte represents a concentration mechanism that commenced in the furnace but can be considered a continuum from natural processes. Metal losses to fayalite (converter) slag occur by matte entrainment due to the mechanical capture of liquid sulphide droplets from the matte layer, and the exsolution of dissolved metal sulphide resulting from changes in the oxidation state of the slag. The latter is comparable to immiscible sulphide in basic magmas. However, the observed distribution of PGEs shows enrichment in metal phases of the matte. A mechanism is proposed whereby naked PGEs in silicate melts coalesce to form clusters which are stabilised by surface attachment of sulphur atoms. This envelope acts to 'draw the cluster into sulphide melts. Small particle melting effects permit PGE clusters to remain as liquids at magmatic and smelter temperatures.

Jan 1, 1994

By N. P. Kripakov

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) is conducting research to develop a practical computer-based tool that will allow coal mine planners to anticipate rock mass behavior surrounding mine entries prior to actual mining. More specifically, this tool estimates to what degree and extent the immediate roof and floor strata and the coal pillar ribs surrounding an opening will weaken or fail for a given set of mining parameters. The technical approach couples together two numerical techniques: the boundary-element method and the finite-element method to allow for an approximate three-dimensional simulation of actual mining situations. Outputs from plan-view, linear-elastic, boundary-element models executed at different mining stages are used as input to a detailed, section-view, finite-element model to estimate the degree and extent of failure expected to occur around the periphery of an entry system. Using a pseudo-elastic approach. elastic rock mass properties are continually updated as different zones are predicted to fail. The procedure is relatively easy to use and is being set up to work interactively with the user who will not be expected to be a computer expert. Inputs include easily understood parameters obtainable from the field and rock mechanics laboratories. Examples of computer-generated output from generic sample models representing typical mining situations are presented and results discussed.

Jan 1, 1994

By R. Singh, C. Gong, J. Chaudhry

"Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) is an ideal technique for the deposition of conducting and non-conducting oxide based thin film materials. In this paper we have presented a study of photo assisted MOCVD for the low temperature deposition of a number of oxide based advanced materials. We have used incoherent light sources as the source of optical and thermal energy in our MOCVD system. The vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) and ultraviolet (UV) photons can enhance the surface reaction of the absorbed molecules through the perturbation of the electronic state of binding between the absorbed molecules and the solid surface. Unlike plasma process, no surface damage is expected and high quality materials have been deposited. At a given substrate temperature, the performance of deposited film depends on the lamp configuration.INTRODUCTIONMetalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) has become the standard manufacturing technique for the deposition of large area thin films of compound semiconductors. l.(.w-cost, high crystalline quality, atomically clean and sharp interfaces, atomic layer epitaxy, high throughput rates and potential for direct writing are some attractive features of MOCVD. Due to a number of potential advantages mentioned above, MOCVD is considered as an ideal technique for the deposition of various electronic and optical materials for a wide variety of applications. Rapid isothermal processing based on incoherent radiation as the source of optical and thermal energy is emerging as the key low thermal budget (integral of processing time and temperature) processing technique for the fabrication of current and next generation of microelectronic and optoelectronic devices and circuits [1]. In this paper we have demonstrated that the design of the lamp assembly plays an important role in determining the properties of the materials deposited by RIP assisted MOCVD. We have studied the growth rates, structural properties and electrical properties of Y2O3/Si structure. At a given substrate temperature, best results are obtained for the lamp assembly that provides maximum number of VUV and UV photons."

Jan 1, 1994

By A. P. Paiva

With the aim of establishing a valuable alternative to the conventional methods, studies regarding the recovery of precious metals by solvent extraction have been increasing over the past few years. In this work, the selectivity of extraction presented by Cyanex 471X toward silver is investigated. Simulated chloride solutions considering contents of iron and copper usually present in actual leaching practice were used. The characterization of the aqueous solutions - in terms of the multiple equilibria established by the chlorocomplexes of the different metals and their relation to the total chloride concentration of the base-electrolyte - was successfully carried out by cyclic voltammetry. The results obtained support the important contribution of the electrochemical techniques for the understanding of the overall extraction phenomena.

Jan 1, 1994