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By Robert A. Cummings

A rock mass classification system has been developed for support estimation in mines using caving methods. The developed system (MBR System) accepts readily-obtainable geotechnical properties, and mining geometry, to develop a rating that permits recommendations for drift support in block caving mines. The data base includes major active United States caving mines. The method is intended to be used for planning and estimating purposes and for preliminary support design. The Manual explains the organization and nature of the MBR System, its derivations, details of required input data, methods for assessing the data and for developing rock mass ratings, and techniques for selecting the most appropriate mine support recognizing mine requirements and desired stability. A worked example is provided.

Jan 1, 1984

Although the technology involved in removing material from below the earth's surface has a long history, communication systems in underground workings are relatively new to the industry. Communication equipment did not begin appearing in underground mines until the early 1900's. Figure 1-1 shows a miner using a Western Electric standard telephone set for underground mines in 1913. These early phones were essentially the same as those used aboveground, except that they were enclosed in cast-iron boxes as protection against moisture, acid fumes, and gases. In the 1950's, the Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Co. of West Virginia introduced a telephone set for use in explosive atmospheres that was designed around the philosophy of explosion containment. To contain an explosion within the telephone set required a 39-pound casing, which greatly limited portability. [ ] Both of these telephone sets required "pipe" or conduit, not a very practical item for a 100-squaremile coal mine. A common thread prevalent in the first 40 years of design and development is that the primary effort was placed on the telephone set. In the early 19701s, as work began on the design of modern communication systems for use in underground mine environments, the following requirements were established: 1. Must meet intrinsic safety standards .--This applies not only to coal mines, but to other explosive environments. 2. Must be compatible with the environment.--The system must with- stand dust, moisture, and corrosive conditions. 3. Must be rugged in structure.-- The system must withstand maintenance by 10-inch pliers and 4-pound hammers, as well as impact from a falling piece of roof. 4. Must be size-flexible.--Whatever is built must be sized for the small operator as well as the large companies. 5. Must be a total system in design.--The system must be intrinsically safe, including cable, power supply, and station set. 6. Must work with present telephone system.--The system should be compatible with aboveground communications already in place; it should not be the single cause of change in aboveground communications. 7. Value-added pricing.--The system should be reasonably priced so that savings created by its introduction will more than offset the installation cost.

Jan 1, 1984

By M. L. Glenn

The Bureau of Mines is conducting research on substitutes for chromium-containing alloys in order to conserve imported critical and strategic materials. Part of this research concentrates on finding low-chromium substitutes for heat-resisting stainless steels for the temperature range 600° to 800° C. Ferritic alloys are emphasized that have oxidation resistance provided by chromium contents as low as 10 pct and stress rupture strength provided by the precipitation of the chi(X)-phase intermetallic compound, (Fe36Cr12 (Mo, Ti)10). Initially, research was concentrated on selecting an alloy composition having a minimum chromium content with strengthening provided by the X-phase. An Fe-(10-12 pct)Cr-6 pct Mo-(1.5-2.0 pct)Ti alloy was selected. After the alloy selection, the tensile, stress rupture, and oxidation properties were determined. Stress rupture properties were found to be similar to those of 304 stainless steel. However, the alloys possessed brittleness during both stress rupture and tensile testing, possibly as a result of too high a content of molybdenum and titanium. Higher than expected oxidation rates were found that may be caused by the high molybdenum content.

Jan 1, 1984

By W. Laird

For years, the coal industry has been confronted with face ventilation problems, ignitions, dust, and their effect on productivity. To improve face ventilation, minimize face ignitions, and control dust in the face areas, studies have been conducted over the past 30 odd years by coal companies, federal government research programs and others. These studies included brattice curtains, water spray nozzles, water pressures, highly efficient water filtration systems, auxiliary fans, differ fans, various dust collection systems and the recently developed "Spray Fan" ventilation system. This system consists of spray banks strategically placed on continuous miners to ventilate immediate face area.

Jan 1, 1984

By Donald K. Grubbs, Frederick B. Henderson, Glen T. Penfield

The technically troubled new LANDSAT-4/Thematic Mapper (TM) land observational satellite remote sensing system has provided dramatically new and important short wave infrared (SWIR) data, which combined with Landsat's Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) visible (VIS), very near infrared (VNIR), and thermal infrared (TI) data will greatly improve regional geological mapping on a global scale. The TM will significantly improve clay, iron oxide, bauxite, and nickel laterite mapping capabilities over large areas of the world. It will also improve the ability to discriminate vegetation stress and species distribution associated with lateritic environments. Examples of the application of remote sensing for nickeliferous and aluminous laterites are illustrated. Nickel laterites on Gag Island, Indonesia are defined by MSS imagery. Satellite imagery of the Weipa, Cape Bougainville, and the Darling Range, Australia bauxite deposits show the potential use of MSS data for exploration and mining applications. Examples of satellite and airborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for Jamaica and West Kalimantan, Indonesia document the use of this method for bauxite exploration. Thematic Mapper data will be combined with the French SPOT satellite's high spatial resolution and stereoscopic digital data, and U.S., Japanese, European, and Canadian Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data to assist with logistics, mine development, and environmental concerns associated with bauxite and other lateritic deposits worldwide.

Jan 1, 1984

By Muir DM

In recent years, significant improvements have been made in the design and operation of carbon-in-pulp plants. Some of the major developments in plant operation and technology are reviewed together with an outline of the research being undertaken in Western Australia. The main problems facing operators include the understanding and control of carbon fouling and regeneration, and the recovery of gold from the carbon. It is shown that carbon fouling by a variety of agents, particularly cyanide, calcium carbonate and silica, cause a significant loss of kinetic activity which in turn leads to poor plant performance. The importance of acid washing and adequate thermal reactivation is discussed. Although the Anglo elution procedure is commonly used in South Africa its use in Australia in preference to the conventional Zadra elution procedure is likely to be re- stricted because of its demand for high quality water. Solvent elution by the recently developed Micron procedure using refluxing methanol, ethanol or acetonitrile vapours is an attractive alternative. This elutes gold in 4-6 hours and provides concentrated gold solutions suitable for simplified gold recovery steps.

Jan 1, 1984

By Mary Sue Coates

Characterization of the rock mass in which deep underground structures are to be located is of critical importance to the feasibility and design of the structures. The process involves areal studies, subsurface exploration and extensive testing to obtain comprehensive data on the rock units which will enclose the excavated structures. The Illinois Deep Hole Project provides an example of characterization of rock at great depth describing the types and variety of tests and studies which were utilized and the results obtained.

Jan 1, 1984

By K. Osseo-Asare

The presence of carbonaceous matter in gold ores presents a two-fold problem: (1) The poor release of gold from the carbonaceous matrix and (2) the uptake of dissolved gold by the carbonaceous leach residues. A critical review is presented of the published information from various parts of the world pertaining to the nature of the carbon-containing components of these ores and their different roles in the gold extraction process. Included in this paper are new results based on the authors' research on carbonaceous ores from the Prestea goldfields of Ghana. Methods for isolating and characterizing the carbon-containing materials are given and a discussion is presented of the interaction of the carbonaceous ores as well as the fractionated components with aurocyanide solutions. Emphasis is on basic physico-chemical phenomena, investigated with the aid of X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, adsorption, and electrophoretic mobility studies.

Jan 1, 1984

By R. W. O. Kersten

This paper describes the method used at Agnes Gold Mine in the calculation of pillar strengths, which involves a back-analysis type of approach. The results obtained there are comparable with those obtained by accepted formulae for pillar strength. It was found that a stress level of 70 MPa for the width of combined pillars (Le. crown and sill pillars) causes failure of the reef drives as well as the tops and bottoms of the stope side walls. As shrinkage stoping to depths of more than 650 m would result in very low percentage extractions, alternative methods of stoping will have to be investigated for these depths.

Jan 1, 1984

By S. A. Hoenig

Introduction In an earlier publication, the application of exoelectron technology to the monitoring of dry grinding in a ball mill was reported. Recently, the author has investigated the ball mill problem in more detail with the system shown in Fig.1 . Here, some of the current generated in the ore-ball-water mixture was picked up by the metal chains and served as a measure of the rate of grinding. While the mechanism of current generation has not been completely clarified, a parallel study of electrical effects associated with rock drilling indicated that the major driving force is the zeta potential*, while oxidation of the freshly fractured material provides the remainder of the current. Both of these effects are sensitive to the exposed surface area, and it might be expected that the observed currents would provide a measure of the grinding rate. This "surface area" effect allows the measurement system to be used in any type of rock or ore grinding. Some studies with sulfide copper ore indicate higher currents than those observed with silica sand, but the overall pattern of current versus grinding rate is essentially the same. Experimental Studies The experimental system was set up as shown in Fig. 1. The initial studies were done with silica sand because of its availability and for comparison with the data of reference 1. The sand was sized to an average of 425 µm (40 mesh); a typical charge consisted of 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) of sand, 0.85 L (0.22 gal) of tap water and 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) of iron grinding balls 25.5 mm (1 in.) in diameter. For a typical "run," the mill was loaded with a fresh charge of ore and operated for periods ranging from 10-60 min. During this time, the current was measured with a Keithley 417 picoammeter and a chart recorder. At the end of the grinding period, the charge was removed and sieved to recover the 425, 300, and 212 pm (40, 50, and 70 mesh) fractions which were then drained and weighed. A fresh charge was used for each test and every attempt was made to keep the draining and weighing processes uniform. *The zeta potential is the voltage developed between the surface of a solid particle and the ion solution in which it is immersed. In the case of rock/ore materials in water, the zeta potential is negative.

Jan 1, 1984

Courses in chemical engineering and metallurgical engineering at the University of Queensland were compared and the main difference was found to be the greater emphasis on the application of chemical engineering fundamentals, particularly chemical thermodynamics, to specific processes in the metallurgy course. This reflects the distinctive features of extractive metallurgical processes which are not common in other chemical engineering processes and which justify the study of extractive metallurgy in its own right. B.Sc. courses in metallurgy provide one way in which the specialist knowledge of extractive metallurgy can be taught. General metallurgy courses are considered to be preferable to those restricted solely to extractive metallurgy since graduates of a general course have a wider choice of employment, while excessive emphasis on extractive metallurgical applications in chemical engineering courses could reduce the non-specific nature of these courses. Postgraduate diploma and higher degree programmes are avenues for non- metallurgists to acquire knowledge of the discipline.

Jan 1, 1984

By J. N. Hartley

Uranium mill tailings, waste products of uranium extraction, contain hazardous constituents that if released into the atmosphere and groundwater could threaten our health and environment. To provide for safe disposal and control of these tailings, Congress enacted the Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-604). Subsequently, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established standards for tailings disposal that limit radon emission into the air to 20 pCi m-2s-1 on an annual average basis (EPA 1983). The design life of the impoundment is to be 1000 years where practicable, but 200 years at least. To facilitate the design of containment systems that will meet the EPA standards, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Department of Energy (DOE) are sponsoring research at the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL)* to develop the necessary technology. Earthen and asphalt materials have been evaluated for use as radon barriers (Hartley 1983) and as liners to minimize leaching (Buelt 1983). Herbicide and rock barriers against biological intrusion have been evaluated (Cline 1982). Surface stabilization techniques have been investigated to maintain the long-term effectiveness of a containment system that must be protected from wind and water erosion, chemical and physical degradation, and biological disturbance.

Jan 1, 1984

Ranger Uranium Mines (RUM) operates an open cut located in the Top End of the North- ern Territory. Strict environmental controls govern all operations and the water management requirements have the greatest impact on mine planning. The two main goals of planning are to provide mill feed and to mine sufficient suitable quality waste rock for ongoing con- struction of the tailings dam. Early planning concentrated on staged development of the pit to provide access to as much ore as possible for a given amount of development. All waste was considered to be suitable construction material. Grade control of crusher feed was the main problem in planning, as wide vari- ations occur in ore grade over relatively short distances. Water management for the site ope- rates a no release' system for contaminated waters. Design storage has proven inadequate, and the open cut has been used as the extra storage. As construction of future stages of the tailings dam requires non-mineralised rock materials which meet specific quality criteria, the mine has had to re-examine long term plan- ning and pit development strategies. This has entailed the collection of much data not re- quired under normal mining conditions, such as the assaying of waste drill core. The overall impact on mine planning of the environmental regulations has been to alter the philosophy of earlier planning, making it necessary to create a new strategy for pit development with

Jan 1, 1984

By James W. Clark

This paper is a description of certain geologic aspects of the Inspiration mining operation. It is not a geologic description of the Inspiration deposit nor an exposition of all the geologic work involved in the development and exploitation of the deposit. A few specific examples of the application of geology and geostatistics to the mining process are given to illustrate the progress that has been made in making the Inspiration Mine more efficient and cost effective, and a statement of the philosophy of geologic applications is offered.

Jan 1, 1984

By M. Cross

INTRODUCTION The results of the Japanese dissective investigations have [l-4] transformed our understanding of how the blast furnace operates. These studies revealed an internal structure of the furnace burden with five main zones, as illustrated in Figure 1. In the granular zone the charged material retains its structure whereas in the cohesive zone the iron ore particles are at advanced stages of reduction and form a semi-molten mass with a relatively high flow resistance. In the active coke zone molten iron and slag flow through a matrix of loosely packed coke. The raceway is a relatively small void space generated by displacement of coke due to the hot blast momentum, whilst the hearth is packed with coke, slag and molten iron. [ ] It is now well appreciated that furnace control is largely achieved and maintained by using the burden charge distribution to determine the gas glow distribution within the furnace and, hence, the shape and extent of the cohesive zone. In fact, Wakayama et a1 [5] of Nippon Steel Corporation state that optimum furnace operation is synonomous with the formation of a desirable cohesive zone shape, which in turn is almost solely determined by the burden charge distribution and its mechanical properties [6]. Much of the development work on operating furnaces since the dissective investigations has been oriented towards the identification of external furnace measures which reliably predict the shape of the cohesive zone. Currently the most popular measures are top gas temperature, velocity and CO/CO, ratio profiles [5]. More recently pressure distributions as evaluated from a series of wall measurements down the height of the furnace are also being utilised [7] to identify the position and shape of the cohesive zone. A great deal of emphasis has been placed upon achieving a consistent quality in the burden charge materials, establishing a suitable set of operating conditions and only making changes when forced to, ie., the operation for some reason moves outside a desired operating range or the production requirements change. Operational control schemes based upon this philosophy (eg., Kawasaki's GO-STOP system [8]) have been remarkably successful at achieving both high production rates and relatively low fuel costs. Mathematical models have long been used as tools to assist in the analysis of the blast furnace process. Although, the models have been useful in post-operative analysis and for identifying trends, etc., they have not proved reliable for detailed design criteria or as the basis for effective control schemes. Such mathematical models have moved from simple statistical correlation, through overall and stagewise heat-and-mass balance calcu-

Jan 1, 1984

By D. N. Hillhouse

The economics of exploration target selection can be measured ultimately only against a company's success at developing mines. In the following brief history of the mine acquisitions of one company, Placer Development Limited, I try to identify the principal targeting parameters and the principal skills that came into play for each property and examine how these have changed with time. The process of target selection in exploration is directed: - first by corporate investment criteria which define objectives and acceptable levels of risk for pursuit of those objectives; - second by experience and skills which permit us to minimize risk; and - third by anticipation of future events relating to ore discoveries and changes in external risk factors.

Jan 1, 1984

By S. J. Mitchell

An analysis of bolting reinforcement of several large [approximately 18 m (60 ft) cube] pillars was performed. The many overcoring stress profiles in pillars at the mine were used to produce generalized stress distributions at various stages in pre- and post-failure. A complete stress-deformation curve was estimated from this data. The effect of pillar bolting on the load-deformation behavior was extrapolated from the observed unbolted behavior. Bolting can increase pillar strength by up to 10 percent. The effect of bolting on general mine stability was examined with a shoW computer analysis. The computer model was calibrated against measurements performed at the mine, and produced good agreement between measured and modeled stresses. The analysis indicated that bolting increases the bolted pillar safety factors in the event of additional pillar failure by a small amount (approximately 5 percent). Progressive pillar failure is unlikely, because arching transfers most load from yielding pillars to large unmined abutments rather than to the smaller panel pillars.

Jan 1, 1984

By Arthur V. Petty

The Bureau of Mines has researched the utilization of mining and pro-cessing wastes as raw materials for the production of glass-ceramic pipe. Characterization of various wastes as to occurrence and chemical composition is reported. A computer program was developed and used to identify waste materials and mixes that would result in glass melts from which glass-ceramics could be produced after cooling and subsequent heat treatments. The production of abrasion-resistant pipe from inexpensive and readily available domestic resources could offer an economical substitute for high-alloy steels containing the critical and strategic materials cobalt and chromium.

Jan 1, 1984

By John B. Wright

This paper describes laboratory techniques and subsequent results of Bureau of Mines research to produce chlorination-grade feedstock from an abundant, low-grade, domestic, rock ilmenite ore. The research is part of the Bureau-effort to devise technology that may help decrease U.S. dependence on imported raw materials. A rock ilmenite containing about 46 wt pct Ti02 was smelted in an electric arc furnace with coke, woodchips, and Na2C03 to separate most of the iron as pig iron and to form a low-iron, titanium-enriched slag. The slag was ground, pelletized, oxidized, and then sulfated with mixtures of SO2 and air in a continuous 4.5- to 9.1- kg/h apparatus at 1023 to 1223 K. The sulfated slag, containing 60 to 65 pct TiO2, was reground and leached in water at ambient temperature to decrease the combined levels of the troublesome Ca, Mg, and Mn impurities from 7.0 to 1.7 wt pct. At levels of more than 3 wt pct, these impurities contribute to operating and disposal problems, The final product was upgraded to about 84 wt pct TiO2. This material potentially is suitable for chlorination in a fluidized-bed reactor. The most favorable results were achieved with leached slag sulfated at a feedrate of 4.5 kg/h and at temperatures of 1073 to 1123 K.

Jan 1, 1984

By Richard R. Klimpel

This paper takes the liberation model recently developed by Klimpel and Austin for liberation from a binary system and reduces the over-all model form to a number of useful limiting cases. General use of the complete model form, while quite broad in utility, requires a numerical integration computer program for prediction of liberation given a specified minor component grain size distribution coupled with an optimization algorithm such as linear programming in order to back- calculate the associated grain size distribution from experimental data. In this paper, analytical solutions to the model are achieved for various assumed distributions of the minor component. These solutions are algebraic equations capable of predictive use with a hand calculator and back-calculation with very simple trial and error search procedures. The use of these special model solutions is illustrated on several sets of experimental liberation data, and the approach is shown to have practical utility.

Jan 1, 1984