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By Everette Lee DeGolyer

FIFTEEN thousand barrels of oil daily, the production of the United States 75 years ago, amounted to more than 90 per cent of world supply. Russia and Romania, neither of which produced as much as one thousand barrels daily, were the only other suppliers in substantial quantity. The adolescent oil industry of the United States, a dozen years old in 1871, was still confined to the Appalachian region. Wells were drilled by cable tools; many of them were "kicked down" by manpower with a spring pole; and depths were measured in hundreds rather than thousands of feet-a 1000-foot well was a deep well. Casing was an innovation, come into general use only a few years previously and still so new as to be subject to bitter patent litigation. Crude oil was packaged in wooden barrels and shipped by flat boat and barge on the creeks and rivers and by railroad. Such pipe lines as existed were only a few miles long. There were many refineries. Pittsburgh, Cleveland and the Atlantic seaboard were refining centers. Refineries were very small, however, and their operations consisted essentially in simple fractionation by distillation and treating for quality. The products in demand were burning oil or kerosene and lubricating oils. Oil was not yet used as fuel and gasoline was a nuisance to the refiner.

Jan 1, 1947

By R. S. Hooper

IN attempting to describe recent mining developments at the Bunker Hill mine, it may be well to recall first the old days of hand mining when holes were laboriously drilled by hand to a maximum depth of three feet, and were shot one or two at a time, in order that the miner could take advantage of every slip, crack or bedding plane, and so save as much drilling as possible. Broken muck, of course, was loaded by hand shoveling into wheelbarrows or small cars, and heading advances or stope ton¬nages were governed by the number of men that could find room to work in any given place. The first big improvement over these old methods was the introduction of the reciprocating type of air-powered rock drill. This innovation, crude as it was, enabled the miners to set up a machine and drill a complete round of holes in one shift; but broken muck was still loaded by hand, and the size and rate of advance in headings were limited by time required to remove the broken rock. The next improvement of consequence was the appearance of the hammer-type rock drill, which greatly increased drilling speed over the reciprocating type, and made possible the completion of a full cycle in one shift, by the use of crossbars in headings, and permitted drilling and mucking to be carried on at the same time. Rock drills continued to improve as time passed, and finally the smaller and more efficient mucking machines appeared on the scene, and it became possible to muck out a round of broken rock and have a clean setup for one or more drill columns and machines. A complete cycle of mucking, drilling, and blasting was completed in one shift with an average advance of five feet. These conditions prevailed for several years, but as the mine grew deeper, the distances to transport the workers grew longer, and this fact together with the shortening of the working day, soon presented the problem of attempting to complete a cycle of operations in a shift of only six hours at the working faces. Anticipating this condition, the operating heads at the Bunker Hill had started an intensive study of more and better mechanization, and over a period of comparatively few years have adopted and placed in service methods and machines that make it possible for a three-man crew to consistently advance headings seven by nine feet in cross section, at the rate of eight feet, and more, per shift, doing all the mucking, switching, drilling and loading. These improvements consist of the following major items: I. The development of a light, flexible, easily transported jumbo equipped with pneumatic columns (Fig I), that has decreased the "setting up" and "tearing down" time an average of 1 1/2 hr per shift, or 25 pct of the available working time. These jumbos were developed at the Bunker Hill mine by members of the staff and consist of two pneumatic columns attached to a suitable carriage. They fold

Jan 1, 1947

By M. Muskat, R. L. Boyer, F. Morgan

In the last several years a type of application of the fundamental permeability-saturation relationships has been developed which offers great promise in the interpretation of general reservoir performance.l-' In these developments no attempt is made to solve the detailed flow dynamics in actual oil and gas-producing systems. That problem still remains unsolved. But the permeability-saturation phenomena are incorporated in the analysis of oil-producing reservoirs in a manner such as to reflect the true role they play in controlling the gross reservoir behavior. In particular, they are introduced in such a manner as to determine the gas-oil ratio of the production at any stage of depletion, and, when combined explicitly with the so-called material-balance principles in differential form, one can obtain a differential equation describing completely the average pressure and gas-oil-ratio history of oil-producing reservoirs. While thus far they have been applied directly only to gas-drive reservoirs, they are susceptible of extension to partial water-drive systems, and qualitatively the same principles are of value in the study Of complete water-drive reservoirs. Moreover, in addition to giving a means for computing the variation of the reservoir pressure and gas-oil ratios vs. the cumulative production, they automatically lead to predictions of the gross ultimate recovery under natural depletion—and when properly extended they provide means for predicting the ultimate recovery under gas or water injection. The data required for such applications are the initial fluid distribution in the producing section, the pressure-volume-temperature data on the gas and liquid phases, and the permeability-saturation relationship for the oil-satuiated zone. The former can be obtained with reasonable accuracy by methods that are well established and available throughout the industry. The permeability-saturation data, however, involve techniques that are not at all standardized. In fact, only

Jan 1, 1947

By L. D. Jaffe, M. R. Norton, J. H. Hollomon

In the practical heat-treatment of steel the decomposition of austenite usually occurs during cooling rather than at constant temperature. Nevertheless, the course of this decomposition has generally been studied only isothermally. Isothermal studies are not only simpler experimentally, but have the great theoretical advantage that one of the variables, temperature, is constant. It is the purpose of this paper to outline the principles that govern the relations between isothermal and anisothermalt‡ decomposition of austenite, to present and systematize the available experimental information, and to indicate the gaps in the existing knowledge. Some of the experimental information is the result of new work.§ Most of it is derived from scattered data in the literature. Many of these data were obtained incidentally in the course of research on other subjects and their significance has not been pointed out and perhaps not understood. It is hoped that this paper will aid future planning of more extensive research on anisothermal decomposition. Method In order to study the relations between isothermal and anisothermal decomposition, it appears fruitful to view anisothermal decomposition as taking place at a series of constant temperatures1 (except for the martensite reaction, which does not occur isothermally to an appreciable extent). When the time the steel is at each temperature is finite, the over-all amount of the reaction is considered to be the sum of the amounts occurring at each of the successive temperatures. During continuous cooling or heating, the time the steel is at each temperature and the difference between successive temperatures can be considered to approach zero. The over-all amount of transformation will then be given by integration over the range of temperatures involved. This point of view is advantageous in that it considers anisothermal transformation to be a series of isothermal transformations. The problem thus becomes one of determining the effect of partial decomposition at any given temperature upon subsequent decomposition at another temperature. Single Anisothermal Reaction Consider a phase brought to a temperature at which it is unstable, held there until it has partially transformed, and then brought to another temperature at

Jan 1, 1947

By L. C. Graton

Civilization did not begin until metals became the material of tools, implements and machines. - RICKARD, Man and Metals. HISTORY is no more an end in itself than is a backsight the sum total of a survey. This Institute may view with satisfaction the remarkable development of the mineral industry since its founding three score and fifteen years ago, its own enlarging service to that industry, and the contribution thus made toward the enhanced welfare, opportunity and mutual understanding now in greater or less degree reaching and benefiting all peoples of the globe. But neither this professional society nor the dynamic mining industry as a whole wishes on this anniversary to direct its gaze chiefly toward the past. The foremost purpose of historical review should be to throw into clear perspective the strong points and the defects in the forward march thus far, primarily as the basis for conceiving and designing a still sounder progress henceonward. At various times since the Institute's founding, the theories of ore deposition have been considered from the historical view point.l-7 For the present occasion it seems fitting to lay prime emphasis on the practice and utilization of geology in its varied relations to the problems of the mining industry. It is hoped that the reader will understand and accept the degree to which the whole is sampled by parts familiar to the present writer, and the disproportionate attention to thought and achievement within the United

Jan 1, 1947

By I. Milton LeBaron

Operation of the phosphate flotation plant at the Peace valley mine of the International Minerals and Chemical Corporation, Florida, began in the summer of 1942. Since that time several changes have been made in the flowsheet, with resultant increases in metallurgical results. Three flowsheets, together with the comparative plant results, are given in this paper, together with a discussion of the desliming circuit used for preliminary washing of the flotation feed. Fig. I lists the essential units in the original flowsheet at the Peace Valley plant. The figures for tonnage and grade are average for a period of two months. Mineral Separation Airflow cells are used for both the fatty acid and the amine float. Three immediate difficulties presented themselves in the use of this flow sheet: I. Floating a maximum amount of phosphate in the rougher section to give good recovery sent a low-grade concentrate to the silica float, resulting in high costs for amine reagent in that section.

Jan 1, 1947

By Frederick Laist

IN the course of the past 75 years the treatment of copper ores has undergone the most profound changes. To a lesser degree, this is true of all the nonferrous metals, but the rapid increase in the demand for copper due to the phenomenal growth of the electrical industry, and the discovery of vast new ore deposits in Michigan, Montana and Arizona, provided an exceptional incentive for improvements in smelting practice and for large-scale operations. Because these must perforce be carried on in regions where labor was scarce and wages high, the need for mechanization and larger smelting units soon became apparent. At a later date the porphyry coppers were discovered, with ores so low in grade that enormous tonnages had to be treated daily if they were to be made to pay at all. In some instances these ores were associated with, or overlain by, oxidized ores, which could not be concentrated mechanically and, of course, could not be smelted directly. This led to the development of the copper-leaching process. While the principles of the various smelting and leaching processes are for the most part of European origin, and have long been known, modern practice is essentially American and was evolved on this side of the Atlantic. The ores of copper may be divided into three general classes; viz, native copper, sulphide and oxidized ores. By far the greater number of commercially important ore deposits come under the classification of sulphides. Commercial deposits of native copper are limited to the Lake Superior

Jan 1, 1947

By Edward Saibel

THE various theories that have been advanced to explain or predict the conditions under which a metal fractures may be divided into two categories: First, there are the macroscopic theories generally used in engineering practice. These are empirical in nature and limited in application. For example, the maximum normal stress criterion, which is quite satisfactory for a mild steel in simple tension at atmospheric pressure, no longer suffices when this steel is pulled under hydrostatic pressure.2 In all of these empirical theories, the critical condition characteristic of the material and of the loading conditions must be obtained experimentally. Secondly, there are the theories based on interatomic forces,3,4 or on the energy required to form new surface.5,6 These have all dealt with the theoretical evaluation of the tensile stress necessary to bring about rupture in a purely brittle manner; that is, without plastic flow preceding fracture. All of these attempts have led to values of the tensile strength of crystals or of polycrystalline bodies that are 100 to 1000 times higher than observed values. On this account, it has been thought necessary by some investigators to conceive of a microcrack structure or distribution of flaws throughout the specimen such that the resulting stress concentrations provide the factor necessary to bring about agreement between calculation and experiment. It has been pointed out by several observers7 that this point of view is highly unrealistic, in that the weakening effect of these flaws or microstructures must be very uniform from specimen to specimen, since the fracture stresses found for various specimens of the same material tested under similar conditions are so - nearly constant. Furthermore, since calculations based on atomic forces or atomic energy are for purely brittle fracture, a condition probably never satisfied in tests, agreement is hardly to be expected. Thermodynamic Theory Of Fürth In order to resolve this apparent discrepancy between the theoretical cohesive strengths and the observed fracture strengths, Fürth8 advanced a thermo- dynamic theory of the tensile strength of isotropic bodies based on work of Born9 relating to the melting of crystals. Assuming an isotropic material free from imperfections and flaws, behaving elastically up to the breaking point, and assuming a connection between rupture and the melt- ing phenomenon, Fürth obtains an expression for the rupture stress u, in the form [ ] where Q is the melting energy per unit mass, ? is the density, and µ is Poissons’ ratio. Fürth compares fracture stresses computed from Eq I with the fracture stresses of metals as given in the Landolt-Bernstein Tables (1927) and in the Hand-

Jan 1, 1947

By M. B. Ramachandra Rao

THIS paper records the results of the earth resistivity surveys made in the Godavari river in connection with the Ramapadasagar project. After describing the topographical and geological features of the area, the results of the investigation at the several sites have been mentioned. Further, a detailed account has been given of the resistivity methods adopted, the apparatus used and the interpretation of the curves. The resistivity measurements carried out over the water course have been specially outlined, and a review of the verification of the electrical indications by drilling in a number of cases, has also been presented.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. F. Myers, F. M. Lewis

The selection of the proper type of flotation machine involves the consideration of a wide variety of factors. Under any condition, all types of machines will promote some kind of separation. Obviously, the correct way of deciding which type of machine is best suited for a particular problem would be to set up all types of machines and test them out in a competitive manner, but the vast number of small concentrating plants are unable to make such complete and exhaustive tests. The experience of the authors of this paper indicates that if all the factors involved in any particular problem can be determined, and if all the flotation-machine characteristics are understood, some basis for selection could be arrived at other than actual comparison. This paper is presented to show how the process factors and machine characteristics have been combined at the mills of the Tennessee Copper Co. from studies of several types of flotation machines. At the two mills of the Tennessee Copper Co. in the Ducktown Basin of Tennessee, four distinct flotation separations are made on the complex sulphide ore. Three different concentrates are produced from the ore—in the order of their importance: iron concentrate, copper concentrate, and zinc concentrate. Four different types of flotation machines are used. The selection of these four machines, for the plant operation, was based upon the study and operating experience of the machine units shown in the following list: Fagergren machine; square cell, size 56 inches Fagergren machine; level type, size 56 inches Denver machine; conical disk impeller, size 24 inches Denver machine; receded disk impeller, size 24 inches Minerals Separation Sub-A, size 24 inches Munro-Pearse deep cell, pneumatic Southwestern air machine, Hunt principle To date the study of flotation machines has been confined almost entirely to the rougher circuits. The various cleaning operations, being relatively a much simpler matter, have not been investigated so thoroughly. Table I shows a typical analysis of the two ores as well as of the mineral content.

Jan 1, 1947

By Langham B. M

A chemical study of the petrographic components of Greta (Maitland) coal, carried out by the Metropolitan Gas Co. (Melbourne), has revealed an anomaly in the composition of the durain which was thought to warrant petrological investigation.The original study, by the Metropolitan Gas Co., extended over eight shipments of coal received during the winter of 1943.The percentages of the several petrographic components were eslimated by careful handpicking of large samples of each shipment, and analyses were made of the handpicked components, which were also tested as to their gas-making and coking properties.The results are summarised in Tables 1 and 2. At first sight the components of the Greta coal bear a general resemblance in composition to those of other bituminous coals of similar rank, apart from a notable richness in volatiles, which is a distinctive feature of Greta coal. The durain has a typically higher ash content, and lower volatile content than the clarain (Table 1); and the coking behaviour of the four components is typical (Fig. 4).When, however, the analyses of Table 1 are re-calculated on a dry, ash-free basis, an anomaly appears: the clarain and the durain, on this 'pure coal' basis, have practically identical compositions, with the durain containing a slightly higher proportion of volatiles than the clarain (cf. Table 3); but the tar yield of these two components is very different (Table 1). Re-calculated on a dry, ash-free basis, the yield from the clarain is 18.9 gallons of tar per ton, while, that of the durain is 29.0 gallons per ton. The gas derived from the durain is correspondingly richer in illuminants (CH etc) and poorer in hydrogen than that from the clarain (Table 2), and is also notably richer in nitrogen.That the composition of the Greta durain is consistent is proved by the analyses of Table 3, in which the compositions of the respective durains and clarains of eight separate shipments of coal are compared. In most bituminous coals, the durain contains several per cent less volatile matter than the associated clarain, and high volatile content in a durain usually indicates a durain rich in spores.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. R. Low, M. Gensamer, W. T. Lankford

THE problem of sheet metal formability is one which has received a vast amount of attention during recent years. In spite of the great amount of study and experimental work which has been devoted to this problem, many of its fundamental aspects are still not well understood. No generally satisfactory test has been developed which is capable of providing a reasonably adequate evaluation of sheet metal formability, particularly in borderline cases. Anomalies persistently arise in which a lot of supposedly satisfactory material exhibits excessive breakage when formed. This lack of suitable technological tests greatly hinders the design of new parts and the substitution of new materials in parts of existing design, frequently necessitating considerable costly trial and error experimentation on an actual production basis. When, at the beginning of World War II, it became apparent that mass production methods of forming would be required in the aircraft industry if the large numbers of military aircraft needed were to be supplied, renewed attention was focussed on the problem of sheet metal formability. It was widely recognized that the formability requirements placed on sheet metals had been steadily increasing in severity through the years, especially as greater and greater emphasis was placed on streamlined designs with the resultant freer application of doubly curved surfaces. The recent advent of several new high strength aluminum alloys of more limited formability than some of the older alloys also served to emphasize the need for new approaches to the problem. It seemed evident that progress in the technology of sheet metal forming would depend to a great extent on the development of more reliable criteria for the evaluation of formability. Although the problem is admittedly very complex, the most logical approach appeared to be through studies of the fundamental material properties of sheet metals, especially under complex stress conditions simulating those prevailing in actual forming operations. Most previous investigations have failed to make full use of existing knowledge of fundamental material properties, and in many instances have attempted correlations with properties which are now recognized as being ambiguous in nature. This investigation was undertaken, therefore, with the aim of developing methods for the study of the flow and fracture of sheet metals under combined stresses, and of making use of such methods as might be developed in

Jan 1, 1947

By J. A. Richardson

J. A. RICHARDSON[t]-Mr. Stuckey's account of the geology of the kaolins of North Carolina suggests that they exhibit some features similar to those of the Malay Peninsula. About one half of British Malaya (some 26,000 square miles) is occupied at the surface by igneous rocks, of which granite and its associated derivatives constitute fully 90 pct. The average granite is a biotic variety. It is predominantly potassic but carries, in addition, notable amounts of soda and lime so that albite and albiteoligoclase are generally common constituents of the rock. The minor derivatives from granite "magma" likewise include potassic and sodi-potassic members. Decomposition of the granitic rocks has led to the formation of kaolin in many localities, but, in general, the deposits are rather small and, at present, none is exploited commercially. True primary or residual kaolins (as defined by Stuckey; p. 48 Vol. 173, p. 2 TP 2219) have been developed from feldspar veins, pegmatites and from other granitic differentiates which cut through the larger masses of granite; they are usually small and narrow. Kaolin has been derived from aplite, quartz porphyry, quartz micro-porphyry, felsites and microgranites belonging to a complex known as the Chegar Perah-Pulai intrusion in northwest Pahang and southwest Kelantan. The bulk of the component rocks has been more or less strongly sheared. Kaolin-like end products have been formed from both sheared and nonsheared varieties. Kaolin has been formed also by the complete breakdown of trondjemite flanking the northwestern and western margins of the complex Bukit Ranjut syenite intrusion in northwest Pahang. These trondjemites range in composition from essentially quartz-free albiteplagioclasites to quartz-free microcline rocks; they are, in effect, the syenitic homologues of white sodic and potassic granite-aplites. The granites in Malaya have generally undergone more or less severe surficial weathering leading to the production of a spongy and rather cellular or a soft "mealy" material (sandy clay) down to depths of about 100 ft; in places the granite is strongly decomposed down to 150 ft. There has occurred, therefore, widespread partial kaolinization, but, in general, no extensive deposits of good quality kaolin seem to have been formed by these processes of decay. Frequently, the katamorphic processes of desilicification have advanced beyond the production of kaolin towards the formation of lateritic end products. The more important Malayan kaoiins seem to be confined to the western alluvial plains, particularly in areas either where granite crops out at surface, or where it forms the bedrock of the alluvium. There are numerous excellent examples around Gopeng and elsewhere in the Kinta Valley of Perak. Such kaolins belong to Stuckey's groups of secondary deposits, and, like them, these also may be bedded. Field observations have established the existence of what for want of a better name is referred to by the Malayan Geological Survey as "granite wash." It is believed that granite, undergoing extensive deeply penetrative and probably rather rapid destruction under humid tropical weathering (temperature around 90°F; rainfall about 100 in. per annum; high humidity) "flowed," was moved by "creep" and, in addition, probably slumped in large waterlogged masses of sandy clay from topographic salients onto the adjacent flats. Either during this period of transmigration or later when the sludged granite detritus, after having more or less come to rest, was attacked by flowing water, differential sorting and erosion took place with the result that the resorted debris was moved and later deposited as bedded alluvium. In this way, banded "granite wash" was produced comprising alternating bands of clayey sand (resorted granite sludge) and white

Jan 1, 1947

By J. H. East, E. R. Maize

INTRODUCTION PROBABLY no other type of equipment is now being introduced into American underground mines about which less is known and about which there is more misinformation than the Diesel mine locomotive. Any equipment installed underground brings with it hazards that were not present before, and it is the purpose of this paper to show that Diesel-powered equipment can be used with safety in underground mining if certain feasible but very important precautions are taken. Diesel locomotives are not new in underground mining, since they have been used successfully in European mines for at least 19 years, but their use in American mines is exceedingly limited; so far as is known, only five Diesel mine locomotives are operating at present in United States mines. Diesel locomotives were permitted underground in Great Britain for the first time in 1939, and the rapid increase in the number in use in those mines, testifies to their safety and efficiency. More than 1300 Diesel mine locomotives are in use in European mines, according to the latest statistics; these locomotives are employed in coal, iron, lead-zinc and mercury mines. So far as is known, the Diesel mine locomotive has not yet caused an explosion or mine fire, and has not been the cause of any fatalities from toxic gases in the mines in which it has been used. ADJUSTMENTS OF DIESEL ENGINES FOR UNDERGROUND USE A Diesel engine adjusted to work in an underground mine should not be confused with the same engine adjusted for use outside the mine. Adjustment of the air:fuel ratio for engines that are used on the surface is intended to give the maximum fuel economy, and little or no attention is given to the chemical composition of the exhaust gas produced. Many such engines are poorly adjusted and perhaps poorly maintained, with the result that the engine emits smoke in quantity as well as the disagreeable odor familiarly associated with Diesel engines. The air:fuel ratio in the case of Diesel engines operated on the surface is generally around 15:1; that is, 15 lb of air to burn 1 lb of fuel. Diesel engines adjusted to work underground usually have an air:fuel ratio of about 20:I, as at this ratio the minimum quantity of toxic gases is given off in the engine exhaust. Diesel engines operated underground must be maintained in better condition than similar engines used on the surface; otherwise, the smoke emitted in the exhaust becomes objectionable if not unendurable. Practically normal air is required for safe operation of Diesel engines underground or in confined places; failure to provide virtually normal air for Diesel engine operation is almost certain to result in trouble. Bureau of Mines engineers have determined that the air in which a Diesel operates in confined places should contain less than 1/2 pct of carbon dioxide and at least 20 pct of

Jan 1, 1947

By W. M. Mobley

The coal industry in Alabama, centered in Birmingham, has pioneered coal-bene-ficiation practice in the United States. The nature of the coal seams and mining methods employed have necessitated use of equipment and methods best adapted to the local conditions. Although all of the 30 or more coal seams now being mined in the state receive beneficiation, only the three most important producers of coking coals, the Pratt, Mary Lee and Black Creek, are discussed in detail. Nature of the seams, washability characteristics and equipment used are given as examples of the extent of work and progress in this field. The coal seams in Alabama are relatively thin and pitching, making mining difficult and expensive. Most of them are characterized by thin partings of rock or shale in the seam itself, as well as laminations of bone and rash. Mechanical mining methods have increased the occlusions from roof and floor to such an extent that nearly all the coal mined in the state must receive some treatment before it can be put on the market. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1943,1 18,129,792 tons of coal were mined in the state and 14,364,177 tons, or 79.2 per cent, received treatment. Excluding from the total the 1,223,014 tons produced by small wagon mines and the hand-picked lump coal, the amount re- ceiving beneficiation would be more than 90.00 per cent. This is, by far, greater than in any other coal-producing state. The earliest record of coal beneficiation in Alabama was the installation in 1890 of an experimental rig washer by Alexander Cunningham, for the Sloss Iron and Steel Co. at its blast furnace in Birmingham.* In 1894 the Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. introduced the English Robinson washer, a combination of a hydraulic classifier and centrifugal machine. Erskine Ramsay, who has contributed so much to the coal industry, saw its possibilities as well as its mechanical defects and soon had his inventive mind at work. He added a sludge tank of his own design, and many Robinson-Ramsay washers were installed in Alabama and other states. The Stewart jig appeared in 1900, followed by the Montgomery jig in 1910 and both have found extensive use. Increased interest in this field led to new designs, such as the American, Elmore, Burke and Faust. The first Baum-type Norton jig was operated in 1930 and within the last five years six large installations of this type have been made by the McNally-Pitts-burg, Jeffrey and Link-Belt Companies. Wet-washing tables were introduced in 1922 but not extensively used until recently. The two most popular types are the Deister-Overstrom and Deister Plat-O. The coal-cleaning equipment used in Alabama has been relatively simple, yet efficient, but as the amount of impurities in the raw coal has been increased by mechanical mining and labor costs have become higher, much interest has been shown in sand cones, froth flotation and

Jan 1, 1947

By Louis A. Panek

THE purpose of this paper is to present a method of designing safe and economical arch structures that are to be constructed of concrete or directly of original earth materials. The experimental data used to illustrate the design method are taken from Bucky and Fentress,1,2 and the application of the ideas presented by them is extended by obtaining an additional set of curves from which arch structures may be designed. This design method is based upon the following principles of similitude: A scalar model made of the same material as that of the full sized structure will behave similarly to its prototype if the density of the model is increased in the same proportion as its linear scale is decreased. Let R represent the scale or model ratio, namely, the ratio of a prototype linear dimension to the corresponding model linear dimension. The effect of increased density may be obtained by rotating the model in a centrifuge at a speed such that the centrifugal field exerts on the model an accelerative force R times the accelerative force of gravity. Under these conditions; (I) model unit stresses are equal to corresponding prototype unit stresses, (2) the ratio of the prototype deformation at a given point to the model deformation at a similar point is equal to the scale ratio, R, and (3) the model and the prototype will behave similarly within and beyond the elastic limits of strain. According to the above relations, such models can be used to solve the following problems: I. The dimensions of the most economical safe arch structure for a given load. 2. The maximum safe roof span underground for given geologic conditions. The procedure is described briefly as follows. Tests are made by rotating in a centrifuge a number of models that repIesent a variety of prototype loads and dimensions. From the experimental data, curves are plotted to show the relations between these loads and dimensions. The curves are used to solve directly the problems stated above. Structural design is based upon the working (safe) stress of the material of construction, which is established by applying a factor of safety to the experimentally determined ultimate strength of the material. In conformity with this principle, each model is gradually loaded until failure occurs. A safety factor is then applied to the results. If a safety factor of 4 is used, a given model at failure represents a safe prototype, the linear dimensions of which are equal to one-fourth the model ratio at failure times the corresponding model dimensions. The safe model ratio is computed from the following formula: [Safe R = (rl 47r2n2r _ 7r2n2r~r~ \4/ gg in which: n = centrifuge revolutions per second at model failure; r = radius of rotation of the model in feet; g = 32.2 ft/sect.]

Jan 1, 1947

By Robert T. Howard, Morris Cohen

THE purpose of this paper is to direct attention to the lower part of the austenite transformation diagram, or TTT curves, where considerable uncertainty still exists as to the blending of the bainite and martensite reactions. The dissimilarities between these two low temperature trans- formations have been summarized recently by Troiano and Greninger.1 Of particular importance to the present work is the fact that martensite formation, unlike bainite formation, is not suppressed by the fastest quenching rates attainable. However, most of the investigations in this direction have been concerned primarily with the start of the martensite transformation [(M,)] during cooling, rather than with the quantitative aspects of the subsequent reaction on either further cooling or isothermal holding. Several years ago, Cohen2 suggested a form of transformation diagram which reconciled, at least schematically, the isothermal characteristics of the bainite transformation with the insuppressible nature of the martensite transfoi mation. In essence, the diagram consisted of a family of horizontal lines (representing the progress of the austenite-martensite reaction during quenching) which were interrupted in point of time by the bainite family of C-curves extending down from higher temperatures. This picture received later support by metallographic3 and dilatmetric4,5 studies, but the techniques employed were not sufficiently critical to substantiate some of the details. Elmendorf6 and Grange and Steward7 have shown that the Greninger-Troiano metallographic techniques may be used not only for [M,] determinations, but for studying the course of further austenite decomposition. In fact, the latter investigators have observed the amount of martensite formed as a function of temperature below [M,] in fourteen commercial steels. In the present paper, the Greninger- Troiano technique has been combined with the lineal method of Howard and Cohen9 to provide a unique, quantitative treatment of the austenite-martensite reaction. Furthermore, isothermal transformations have been similarly measured on holding at temperatures above and below M,, thus permitting a fairly detailed presentation of the lower part of the conventional austenite transformation diagram. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Materials The steels, listed in Table I, were selected for study because they exhibit a satisfactory range of M, temperatures and have not received as much attention as the lower carbon grades. They were prepared as 30 lb induction furnace heats in the laboratories of the Vanadium-Alloys

Jan 1, 1947

By W. Julian Parton

Treatment of the breaker wash-water discharges to remove the suspended particles of finely divided material is usually most efficiently and economically accomplished in settling or thickening tanks. The purpose of these tanks is to separate the excess water from the solids by sedimentation whereby the solid particles suspended in the water are thickened by the force of gravity. The water overflowing these tanks is either reused for coal cleaning or discharged directly to the streams. The settled solids, which are in a relatively concentrated condition, forming a sludge or thick pulp, can be disposed of by pumping to a storage dam, by slushing into mine workings, by processing for recovery of coal, or filtering by vacuum or centrifugal means and discharging with the breaker refuse. The scope of this paper will be limited to the discussion of settling and thickening equipment, the factors that influence the settlement of solids, and a brief description of tests that can be made to determine the size of settling facilities required for any particular condition. The practical application of sedimentation to the treatment of coal falls into two groups, one of classification or hydro-separation, and the other of clarification and thickening. Classification may be employed to prepare a relatively low-grade fuel, which can be used as is or can be further processed separately. Clarification and thickening is employed where the primary objective is to recover a relatively dewatered solid and return a satisfactorily clear water to breaker or streams. Operation and Types oF Settling Equipment When a stream of water flows across a tank, the time required for a particle to travel from the feed inlet to the overflow must be a little greater than that required for the finest particles or flocs in the feed to settle out of the stream. Theoretically, the liquid in a settling tank should rise at a more or less constant rate throughout the area of the tank Under these conditions the rising velocity of the water must be less than the settling rate of the finest particles if clarification is to be obtained. When classification of particles is to be made in the tank, the overflow velocity must be greater than the settling velocity of the particles that are to be removed with the tank overflow. The performance of a settling tank, then, depends on the settling rate of the solids and the current velocities in the tank. The oldest types of sedimentation employ intermittent types of settling tanks of any convenient shape. Means are provided for filling the tank with pulp and allowing it to settle until quiet, for moving the clean liquor and for removing the thickened sludge. The operation is necessarily intermittent but a sufficient number of tanks is employed so that a continuous flow of clear water is maintained. Continuous methods for the sedimentation of slurries were developed in the metallurgical industry. Cones from which settled solids were discharged by gravity

Jan 1, 1947

By C. H. Gerould

I would like to take a moment to consider our polystyrene-silica replica technique, which was developed at the Dow Chemical Co. and which was mentioned in the paper just given by Mr. Thielsch. He stated that he feared that our replica technique would cause difficulty due to deformation of the metal as a result of the application of pressure during the molding process. We at the Dow have never had any reason to suspect that any deformation of the metal was occurring during the molding process. Our procedure has been to heat the polystyrene to a temperature of 160°C. before applying any pressure, at which temperature the polystyrene is a viscous liquid. By so doing the pressure of the polystyrene against the metal is essentially hydraulic and is therefore applied equally in all directions, which we feel should not cause deformation. Our work using this replica technique has brought forth several indications that deformation of the specimen is negligible. These indications are: I. Direct comparisons have been made between the light and electron microscopes when studying a specific spot on a metal surface. These "same spot" studies were obtained by first taking micrographs at high magnification, with a light microscope, of a specific structure that could be readily recog-

Jan 1, 1947

By J. E. Burke, Y. G. Shiau

SEVERAL attempts have been made to account for the fact that grains in a fully recrystallized metal will coarsen on annealing Two fundamentally different hypotheses have been advanced; with several variations of each. One school considers that the cause of grain growth is the surface energy of the grain boundary The theory of Jeffries1 that grain size and grain size contrast control growth is an example The second school considers the primary cause to be a difference in the lattice energy on either side of the grain boundary The more perfect grains are considered to grow at the expense of their less perfect neighbors, with a decrease in free energy, and a consequent increase in the stability of the system. Burgers2 presents the case for the strain or lattice imperfection theory of grain growth quite completely The latter theory is attractive, since there is no doubt that differences in lattice energy or lattice perfection can cause grain boundary migration A recrystallization nucleus grows for this reason as was beautifully demonstrated by van Arkel and Ploos van Amstel3 Although it is generally stated that grain growth does not precede recrystallization, several workers4,5 have shown that small strains may induce a single crystal in an aggregate to grow, or at least may cause some' grain boundary migration The origin and nature of the imperfections that are considered to be responsible for normal grain growth have never been clearly described, but it is generally agreed that they are a consequence of the difficulty of atomic reorientation in the solid state, and that they do not seriously differ from the type of imperfection that-can be introduced by mechanical deformation An object of the present work was to determine whether the introduction of mechanical deformation would cause grain growth in a specimen which would not otherwise show it under the conditions used It was also planned to determine the effect of such deformation the rate of growth in a specimen which would show - growth in the unstrained condition Recently Maddigan and Blank6 have indicated that slightly strained specimens of alpha brass can undergo considerable growth prior to recrystallization if annealed at low temperatures French7 has reported that at deformations less than 17 pct it is very difficult to detect the beginning of recrystallization in the same material. It was therefore planned to broaden this work to include a complete study of the microscopic behavior of alpha brass under conditions of temperature, time, grain size and deformation such that recrystallization would not occur or would occur to only a small extent EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The brass was prepared by melting cathode copper and commercially pure zinc

Jan 1, 1947