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By H Zhang, M Karimi, M Hassan, S Saydam, B Li

With the prevalence of Mine Internet of Things (MIoT), different types of sensors have been widely deployed in mine sites for environmental monitoring and operational management. Currently, sensors in mine sites are mainly powered by cables or batteries. However, the deployment and maintenance of a power supply network can be difficult and expensive, and batteries have a limited lifespan. The vibration energy harvesting (VEH) technology can be used to provide power for lowpower sensors in mine sites. This presentation briefly introduces three widely used VEH methods (ie piezoelectric, electromagnetic, and electrostatic). The performance of a commercial electromagnetic energy harvester (ReVibe model D) is evaluated based on the vibration of a lab vibrator (3 g, 50 Hz) and an idling SUV automobile (0.3 g, 25 Hz). Experimental results indicate that a ReVibe energy harvester can generate adequate electricity to power a sensor, and its power output depends on the load resistance as well as the vibration frequency and amplitude of vibration sources. To apply VEH to mining applications, this study also analyses the characteristics of vibration sources at the mine site based on the vibration data collected from various operating machines in a coal handling and preparation plant (CHPP). The vibration analysis results indicate that all the measured vibration sources in the CHPP can generate stable and abundant vibrations, characterised by substantial amplitudes (up to 5.55 g) and low dominant frequencies (ranging from 14 Hz to 25 Hz), which are sufficient for VEH.

Sep 1, 2024

By A Tsang, D La Rosa, L Julian, W Hunt, R Pratama

Mineral extraction is facing the twin challenges of finite resources and increasing environmental and economic costs. Society’s growth is matched by an increase in demand for the earth’s resources. It is incumbent on us as contemporary mining professionals to promote and facilitate ethical and efficient practices. Technological developments have and will continue to allow a decrease in viable cut-off grades, creating new economic opportunities from deposits that were previously uneconomic. Mining low-grade deposits however, even with perfect recoveries, will have a significant environmental cost for the metal won. The greatest opportunity to increase metal with the least environmental cost is to increase the metal yield from existing mines. The determination of mining polygons is a critical juncture where rock is typically subjected to the binary grading of either ore or waste. This is undertaken using a number of factors, such as the mining equipment being used and the recovery in the processing plant. Traditionally, mining polygons were generated on the in situ grade control model. This ignores the complex differential blast dynamics that occur during blasting. Two opportunities exist to improve metal yields: optimise the blast design to achieve the post-blast muck pile that will support the greatest outcome; and generate optimised polygons on the post-blast muck pile. A data set from a Canadian Gold deposit is used to demonstrate the potential benefit of iterative blast movement modelling and grade control polygon optimisation on metal yield. The impact of blasting on the total recoverable metal is presented, highlighting blast design as a critical process in the mining value chain.

Sep 1, 2024

By S Nowosad, A Binder, O Langefeld, M Bothe-Fiekert, F Apollo

The mining industry faces complex and urgent challenges driven by an increasing demand for raw materials, and a socially demanding globalised world. The extraction of primary raw materials is today more important than ever as one of the cornerstones towards a sustainable future since the increasing demand for the raw materials required for the energy transition. In the last three years, leading countries as USA, China, Canada, Australia, and the European Union (EU) have developed and adopted strategies to enhance domestic extraction capabilities, diversifying sources, fostering innovation in recycling, and promoting international collaboration related to critical raw materials. On 2022, the Inflation Reduction Act was signed into law in the USA, in June 2023, the Australian Critical Minerals Strategy 2023–2030 was published and in March 2024, the Council of the EU adopted the European Critical Raw Materials Act. On the other hand, raw materials extraction is facing higher environmental and safety standards and regulations, as well as scrutiny from the broader public. Regrettable environmental accidents as tailing dam failures or acid mine drainage occurrences have led to a general distrust of mining activities leaving mining companies with the dual imperative of increasing output while implementing sustainability, decarbonisation, and circularity as a core value in their production processes. This challenging environment offers the opportunity to enhance ‘blue mining’ (BM) as a sustainable holistic approach that integrates the principles needed to plan sustainable, reliable, and responsible mines for today’s and future generations by implementing the principles of circular economy (CE). This requires a fundamental shift from the traditional linear economy approach to a sustainable, circular economy strategy. At its essence, BM encapsulates four crucial aspects – energy, ergonomics, water, and circularity and integrates these four aspects into integrative mine planning, defining clear goals and objectives from the ‘blueprint’ of a mine towards a beneficial post-mining activity. Its implementation can lead to maximisation of resources beyond the life of the extractive mine and sustainable use of materials by integrating the principles of circular economy and multiuse mine, see Figure 1. These concepts complement and recognise the need to minimise environmental and social impacts while advancing economic development. Finally, this contribution explains the requirements and challenges of moving from linear to dynamic planning approaches under the BM concept. This way, BM stands as an approach that can contribute to the mining industry receiving necessary approvals and support from society leading to a long-term transformation of the industry’s image.

Sep 1, 2024

By D Connelly

Quartz deposits are common in nature but the presence of quartz suitable for yielding high purity quartz is exceedingly rare. This paper describes a test work study on producing high purity quartz (HPQ) product to meet the tight product specifications of greater than 99.97per cent, including four and even five nines, for uses including, lighting and fibre optics and modern-day high efficiency solar panels. Due to demand in renewable energy applications the market for high purity silica solar panels known for their increasing efficiency and durability is rapidly growing. Demand continues to rise for the use of high purity quartz in semiconductors, electronics, imaging and sensor markets. Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon to obtain the desired transport of electrical charge and control of the current. The production of silicon metal from high purity quartz has been designated a Strategic Mineral by the European Commission and by the US Department of Justice due to the growing significance of this metal in various industries. The subsequent processing of quartz is the key step to adding value and aiding technological advances. Overall, the high purity quartz market is a highly secretive, specialised market with increasing opportunities for stakeholders. The attempt to produce HPQ in this work was carried out using an Australian quartz ore following a typical HPQ process flow sheet. The unit processes included primary crushing, scrubbing, magnetic separation, flotation, acid leaching followed by hot chlorination. The results indicate that grinding of quartz requires specialist equipment due to the hardness and extreme abrasiveness of the ore leading to additional iron contamination in the ground ore. The critical impurities were aluminium, iron, sodium, potassium, lithium, titanium, zircon, calcium and magnesium. The chemical refining was found effective. The hot chlorination process needed to be done at 1200°C in a chlorine – hydrogen chloride gas atmosphere. The risk of any gas being released during this stage is very serious and only specialist companies should and can carry out this step. More recent studies reported many new options that appear to facilitate the production of HPQ with the requisite purities more easily, but costly equipment along with highly trained operators are required and hence unlikely to become available in standard metallurgical laboratories any time soon.

Sep 1, 2024

By M Yahyaei, P Knights, M S. Kizil, J Qu

Digital Twins (DTs) are transforming business operations across many industries through their accurate representations of physical entities enabled by IoT technologies.

Sep 1, 2024

By G McCullough, J Bassan, d P. Knights, C T. Farrelly

By 2045, carbon-neutral mines will be economically producing products that are vital for the world’s transition to renewable energy. After overcoming significant technical challenges (and the investment of significant capital), leaders have successfully eliminated the use of diesel and other fossil fuels by introducing a wide range of new decarbonisation technologies. These leaders will be reaping the benefits of lower production costs (resulting from elimination of diesel), stable and predictable operations, and easier access to capital for their future projects. This paper describes a future scenario of how a net zero carbon and zero-entry mine could operate by taking maximum advantage of technologies in development or already proven in other industries. Some miners have been unsuccessful in their efforts to reach decarbonisation targets. Instead, they have been forced to close or offload their assets to be acquired by operators with better sustainability credentials, or, in some cases, to indigenous or community-based enterprises with vested interest in making operations viable and sustainable. Regardless of ownership structure, all successful mining operations will have fostered strong and positive community relations that bring education, health, security and economic development opportunities to the communities while respecting their traditions, land-uses and culture. As shallow, easy to mine deposits have become scarce, the majority of new mines are underground. Advancements in electric underground technology and the feasibility of ‘zero entry mining’ (with no personnel in active mining zones) has made it increasingly possible to economically operate underground mines, even at shallow depths. The newest mines have a near zero footprint on the surface, produce no harmful by-products, and are employing in-place or in situ methods of extraction that are efficient and low impact. Surface land-uses, such as agriculture and renewable energy generation, continue in the immediate vicinity of the mine, with no significant ground disturbance, community impact or environmental footprint.

Sep 1, 2024

By S Prakash, M Danish, D Kumar

The green energy transition is speculated to cause an increase in the demand for raw materials while recycling rates are improving; discoveries are required to maintain supply. Geological remote sensing offers a cost-effective way of exploring mineral resources. While satellite and airborne imaging are routinely used for exploration targeting, a gap remains at the outcrop scale. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) is advantageous for large-scale regional mapping, typically performed from satellite or airborne platforms. Accurately mapping geological lithologies remains challenging in inaccessible areas, such as rough terrain or mine sites. Proximal sensing techniques can boost geological activities’ reliability, safety, and efficiency in exploration or during mining activities. It also generates objective, reproducible results and valuable raw data that can be archived, further processed, and re-interpreted. Ground-based hyperspectral imaging of outcrops has steadily increased during the last decade due to sensor development and better processing routines. There is often a big technology gap related to mineral mapping, integration of images and spectra (reduction in manual identification of minerals and types) and hyperspectral data visualisation through remote sensing. TEXMiN Foundation, in collaboration with its industry partner Dassault Systemes Foundation, carried out the project, ‘Developing Hyperspectral Image Processing and Analysis, build a rich library of Hyperspectral images of a vast range of minerals from India which will help in increasing prediction accuracy of mineral deposit for mining exploration’.

Sep 1, 2024

By i, A Shirbazo, S Saydam, S Ata, H L. Ram, B Li

The integration of internet technology into industrial sectors has significantly accelerated the adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, transforming communication, data aggregation, and information distribution. The mining industry has embraced this evolution by deploying IoT devices and advanced technologies like autonomous robots and sensors to enhance operational safety. These sensors enable real-time data transmission and continuous monitoring of key parameters, providing decision-makers with timely insights. However, the interconnected nature of these devices has introduced complexities, resulting in inconsistencies across operations. Addressing these challenges, this research explores the application of modern digital principles to the mining industry through the Reference Architecture Model Industry 4.0 (RAMI 4.0). RAMI 4.0 offers a robust framework that integrates digital and physical systems, promoting data transparency, interoperability, and decentralised decision-making. This study aims to briefly introduced framework designed for the unique challenges of mining operations, leveraging the latest digital technologies. The lack of standardisation in the mining sector highlights the need for a comprehensive approach to tackle issues such as interoperability, scalability, security, safety, and repeatability. Establishing standard procedures can ensure smooth interaction between connected devices, ultimately enhancing operational efficiency in the growing IoT ecosystem within the mining industry. Introducing a well-defined reference architecture like RAMI 4.0 can streamline management processes and improve operational efficiency in mining. By adopting this framework, the mining industry can effectively navigate the challenges of digital transformation, leading to a more connected and resilient future. The study concludes that RAMI 4.0, with its structured approach, can significantly enhance the efficiency and productivity of mineral processing operations, fostering sustainable growth in a digitally driven industrial landscape.

Sep 1, 2024

By A G. Dempster, N Barnett, J Oh, S Saydam

NASA’s Artemis III mission is expected to return astronauts to the surface to explore and sample the lunar volatiles by 2026. These volatiles are anticipated to provide scientific insights as to how the Moon was created and economic value to off-Earth operations. These same volatiles can pose health implications to astronauts and Earth based personnel handling lunar regolith samples. Using Australian, USA and NASA airborne contaminant exposure limits and the Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) measurements of lunar volatiles in the Cabeus crater ejecta, the minimum mass of lunar regolith that can be safely handled by humans on Earth and in spacecraft can be calculated. This analysis determined a 0.15 grams pure sample of Cabeus crater regolith within a cubic metre of air has enough volatiles to exceed safe working conditions, and 14.9 grams of pure Cabeus crater regolith per cubic metre of air can impact human life. The intent of this analysis is to assist safe handling and exposure calculations for the safe handling procedures of lunar regolith containing volatiles.

Sep 1, 2024

By J Leem, S Mehrishal, J Kim, A Fereshtenejad, J Song

Rock mass discontinuity mapping plays a crucial role in developing a reliable Discrete Fracture Network (DFN), providing insights into the distribution of geometrical and mechanical properties of discontinuities. This enables an accurate assessment of geotechnical infrastructure and mining excavations. Data obtained through conventional mapping approaches are substantially limited by factors such as accessibility and subjectivity. Moreover, these conventional methods may pose inherent risks due to manual techniques, exposing practitioners to potential dangers. Recent digital developments in remote surveying techniques offer opportunities for safer and more reliable rock mass discontinuity surveys. These technologies allow extensive three-dimensional surveying and the production of high-resolution 3D surface models, applicable at any time. This paper presents a workflow for digital discontinuity mapping employing drone technology and photogrammetry. Additionally, the capabilities and challenges of applying artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms in the rock mass discontinuity characterisation process are discussed.

Sep 1, 2024

By A Murphy, I Samsonova, N Eastwood, D Whittle

Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS or the Convention) (United Nations (UN) Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, 1982) establishes a comprehensive regulatory framework for the conduct of deep seabed mining (DSM) activities of mineral resources in the Area (defined in Article 1(1) of UNCLOS as ‘the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction’). Under that framework, DSM activities can only take place in the Area pursuant to an approved Plan of Work in the form of a contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) (the Authority), a 168-member international body created under UNCLOS to administer the Area. Private contractors can undertake DSM activities if they are sponsored by Member States of UNCLOS, providing a dual system of international and domestic regulatory control and oversight for activities in the Area.

Sep 1, 2024

By J Johansson, J Lööw

There are many reports about how the new technology will affect our work, sometimes they are utopian but often dystopian. Most of the visions describe the industrial work, while the work of the managers does not seem to be affected. In this article, the authors will discuss how the new technology within the concept of Mining 4.0 changes the conditions for leadership and the work of managers in a modern mining industry.

Sep 1, 2024

By M Pyle, R Ch, G Lane, ramhan

Data is the most valuable commodity in the information age. The use of data enables productivity, opportunity, and safety in various sectors and industries. In the late 1950s, Alan Turing coined the term artificial intelligence (AI) to describe the ability of computing machines to think and behave like humans through simplified reasoning and logic (Turing, 1950). This concept of mimicking human behaviour is the building block of machine learning algorithms used in most AI software. The ‘learning’ aspect in machine learning requires data, that is, information on the environment or the objective, to be modelled or predicted using AI. An AI-enabled system aims to predict the unknown faster and intuitively. Intuition in software algorithms can be described as probabilistic, learned through the data that the AI system is trained on; indeed, the AI software cannot predict the future, but it can provide the likelihood of an event/action occurring, thereby enabling decisions or responses to prevent it or take action. Just as various industries have adopted AI as the tool of choice to seek new opportunities (examples: medical research, self-driving cars, financial modelling), the mining industry, too, has been receptive to embracing AI for problem-solving and maximising the value of its business.

Sep 1, 2024

By B P. Banerjee. S Raval, P M. Ranasinghe

Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (SLAM) is an important technology that enables autonomous robots to navigate independently and create detailed, real-time maps of their surroundings. This capability is crucial in underground mining settings, where it enhances operational efficiency and significantly strengthens safety in these subterranean environments. SLAM algorithms typically rely on identifying and using distinct geometric features, such as plane and edge features, to understand the spatial layout of the environment and to track how it evolves as the sensor moves through it. In underground roadways, the scarcity of noticeable edge features, coupled with the repetitive nature of walls and corridors, poses a significant challenge, making it difficult for these systems to distinguish one area from another. Furthermore, the absence of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) signals in underground adds more challenges, leading to the accumulation of errors in both the mapping and localisation.

Sep 1, 2024

By B P. Banerjee, D Patra, S Raval

Roof bolts are an essential component of roof support systems in underground mines. They are used to provide structural support to the roof of the mine and prevent it from collapsing. Therefore, it is imperative to perform regular assessments of these roof bolts to avert any hazards. Manual investigations of roof bolts are done by surveyors in underground mines, which is extremely timeconsuming and challenging due to the low-light conditions in underground mines accompanied by stringent mine access rules. To this end, automated recognition of roof bolts in 3D point cloud data obtained through laser scanning in underground mines serves as a potential solution to aid roof bolt monitoring. With the continuous advancements in laser scanning-based 3D data acquisition systems, the feasibility of making such surface estimations from 3D point cloud data has increased severalfold.

Sep 1, 2024

By S J. Schafrik, M Long

There are several factors that are increasing the need for new graduates to be ready to design and manage more autonomous operations at mines. Autonomous controls and systems range from the start-up, control, and shutdown of processing plants to the autonomous operation of vehicles. These operations require the workers, engineers, and management to have additional skills for programming, debugging, tasking, and maintaining the equipment. The future survivability of many mining operations will be influenced by a company’s willingness and ability to understand, accept, and utilise this technology for safe and productive operations. This is an educational opportunity and challenge that needs to be addressed throughout the student’s experience, from first year to graduate level. This paper discusses the lessons learned from a decade of multidepartment effort at all student levels and many courses that are able to incorporate data science, controls, and autonomous design into the already topic-rich national curriculum. This approach also exposes other engineering disciplines to the mining industry which is a valuable recruiting tool for talent outside of the mining engineering departments.

Sep 1, 2024

By D Connelly

High purity alumina (HPA) is a processed, premium non-metallurgical alumina product characterised by its purity level ie 99.99 per cent (4N) or 99.999 per cent (5N). The market price, application, and performance of HPA varies widely according to its degree of purity. High purity alumina is a form of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) with growing use in LED lighting and coating on the ceramic cathode separator sheets in lithium ion batteries. This paper describes a study on producing high purity alumina from feldspar to produce HPA and potash for use as a fertiliser. The project was positive for a number of reasons. High potassium extraction (>99 per cent) was achieved in the alkali leach using sodium hydroxide as the leaching agent and full dissolution of the alkali leach residue was achieved using hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. The potential to produce a high purity alumina product via a complex but promising emerging process was assessed. The potential to extract potassium as potassium sulfate to add value to the project was also demonstrated with the test work.

Sep 1, 2024

By T Hicks

Designers of mining facilities play a significant role in defining the overall mine greenhouse gas emissions performance. This demands an appreciation of all the greenhouse gas emissions sources, including Scope 3 emissions, which will form an increasing fraction of the emissions as we transition our generation sources to renewable energy. Traditionally overland conveyors are designed to operate as fast as practical, and through this approach, achieve relative minimisation of: conveyor belt tensions; belt width; mechanical equipment masses; structural steel quantities; and concrete quantities. It is well understood that higher belt speeds reduce capital cost and improve project economics. Operating at higher speeds introduces operating costs through system energy losses and increased wear rates. This paper assesses the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions for a typical iron ore overland conveyor to demonstrate how the design criteria and engineering decisions impact greenhouse gas emissions and project economics. An analysis of the decarbonisation potential and project economics using a range of operational parameters has been completed, developing a marginal abatement cost for each system configuration, creating a basis for integration of low emission overland conveyor designs as part of the broader facility decarbonisation strategy.

Sep 1, 2024

By B Murphy

Seeking to reduce the likelihood of uncontrolled personnel entry into the operating footprint of a dragline, Coronado Global Resources initiated a review of proximity detection systems currently available and equipment interactions in and around dragline operational areas. At the time of the assessment, there were no established personnel proximity detection systems in compliance with functional safety standards for large machinery in Australia. Our primary objective was to guarantee a functionally safe outcome, particularly by implementing a performance-level-rated system in accordance with AS4024 (Safety of Machinery series of Australian Standards). Applying appropriate detection technologies, the goal was to reduce the residual operating risk for machine-to-machine and machine-to-personnel interactions. A comprehensive analysis of available or in-development technologies was conducted, and a layered approach (demonstrated in Figure 1) was adopted to achieve the desired risk reduction by segregating the sensing zones into distinct areas using diverse and disparate technologies consisting of radar (short); light detection and ranging (LiDAR) (medium); and optical (long). To address the potential limitations of each technology, overlapping layered sensing zones were designed. With LIDAR and optical using two distinct artificial intelligence (AI) systems to classify detections, these were specifically trained to handle the unique environments of a mining operation.

Sep 1, 2024

By H S. Shin, H Jin, B H. Ryu, J Lee

Prospecting ice on the Moon necessitates drilling systems to obtain subsurface samples and measure the composition of ice deposits. Landers and rovers equipped with drilling equipment are essential for analysing ice and subsurface resources located at the Moon’s poles. These devices must be small, lightweight, low-power, highly efficient, and high-performance units to function properly in the extreme conditions of the lunar environment. Researchers have developed a prototype drilling apparatus capable of operating in atmospheric and cold environments. A newly developed drilling system in Korea, capable of performing not only sampling but also subsurface investigation, is introduced.

Sep 1, 2024