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By L. S. Brooks

TIMBER HANDLING presents a problem for any mine where appreciable amounts are used. This problem is accentuated where the shaft compartments are too small to allow a loaded timber truck to be lowered in the mine cage. When Normetal Mining Corporation, Limited, found it necessary to resort to square-set mining it faced this problem of getting large quantities of timber down a shaft that was also required for hoisting ore. A 'timber car' that could be suspended under the cage was developed to overcome this difficulty. Production started at the Normetal mine in 1937, at the rate of 250 tons per day. In 1938 a winze, known as No. 3 shaft, was sunk from the 800-foot level ?to the 1,385-foot level. This was later raised to surface and then deepened to 3,275 feet in three stages and became the main production shaft. The portion of the mine below the 3,070-foot level is serviced by a winze, locally referred to as No. 4 shaft, which has been developed for stoping down to the 3,990-foot level and which has been deepened to the 5,365-foot level. No. 3 shaft has two hoisting compartments, each 4 ft. 6 in. by 5 ft. 0 in. inside the timbers, through which the ?ore must be hoisted and timber and supplies lowered.

Jan 1, 1956

Jan 1, 1956

By D. Walton, W. C. Winegard, W. A. Tiller, J. W. Rutter

It is shown that the cellular substructure observed in binary alloy crystals grown from a melt of known concentration can be eliminated by the proper choice of growth conditions. For a given solute concentration, there exists a critical ratio of temperature gradient G in the melt to the rate of solidification R of the crystal, i.e., of G/R, which must be exceeded before the cellular structure can be eliminated. A secondary substructure is observed which is related to the cellular substructure. IN crystals grown from the melt, a prismatic substructure has been observed by Buerger,1 Pond and Kessler,2 and Rutter and Chalmers." This structure is columnar in the direction of growth and appears as a network of hexagonal cells in the plane of the solid-liquid interface. Rutter and Chalmers3 have shown that this substructure occurs as a result of the presence of a layer of high impurity concentration in the melt adjacent to the solid-liquid interface. The formation of the substructure is accompanied by a redistribution of this impurity in the neighborhood of the interface. The structure can be controlled by proper adjustment of the variables in the solidification process such as a rate of solidification and the temperature gradient in the liquid. The redistribution of solute during the solidification of metal crystals has been treated theoretically

Jan 1, 1956

By Harry Freund

Gallic acid is a sensitive, stable, colorimetric reagent for the determination of tantalum in the range of 2 to 40 µg.Ta/ml. The method consists of the fusion of tantalum oxide with potassium pyrosulfate and solution of the cooled melt in satu-rated ammonium oxalate, followed by development of a yellow complex with an ethanolic solution of gallic acid. The tantalum-gallic acid complex absorbs over a broad region in the blue and near ultraviolet. Adverse effects due to interfering ions and solution conditions, such as oxalate concentration and pH, can be minimized by a suitable choice of wave length. A new and sensitive colorimetric method is provided that has been used successfully at the Northwest Electrodevelopment Laboratory of the Federal Bureau of Mines for determining minor amounts of tantalum.

Jan 1, 1956

By D. L. Garthwaite, F. M. Stewart, F. K. Krebill

Pressure has been maintained in the Elk Basin Ten-deep reservoir since the initiation of inert gas injection in Sept., 1949. Oil is being produced under conditions favorable for gravity drainage, including high angle of dip, appreciable structural closure, and fairly good per~neability. Results being obtained are high per cent recovery of oil-in-place, sustained field productivity, reduced operating problems, and recovery of plant products. The high recovery has been calculated by alpplication of the gravity drainage theory described in an earlier AIME paper.' It is also confirmed from field performance by comparing nil recovery to date with gas cap spuce voided. GENERAL INFORMATION The Elk Basin field lies in Park County, Wyo., and Carbon County, Mont., approximately 50 miles east of Yellowstone Park. Located at the northern end of the Big Horn Basin. the field is situated on an elongated asymmetrical anticline (Fig. 1). The pressure maintenance project covered by this paper involves the Embar-Tensleep reservoir in this multi-pay field. Discovered in Nov., 1942, it has a proved productive area of over 6,300 acres. It consists of the 210-ft thick Tensleep sandstone of Pennsylvanian Age overlain by 40 ft of Embar dolomite of Permian Age. The two formations apparently are in communication with each other and are produced as a common source of supply. As 98 per cent of the reserves are contained in the Tensleep sandFtone, in this paper the Embar-Tensleep reservoir will he called simply the Tensleep. The reservoir is found at an average depth of 4,900 it, is approximately 7 miles long and 2 miles wide, and has a maximum oil productive closure of 2,330 ft. The strata dip an average of 21" on the west flank and 45" on the east. There are presently 132 Tensleep wells in the field drilled on 40-acre spacing; of these, 17 are shut in because of high gas-oil ratio (GOR) and eight are gas injection wells. Rock characteristics and related information for the pay section follow: Porosity, avg 10.7 per cent Permeability (air) from cores, avg 118 mds Permeability from PI'S 91 mds Connate water, avg 8 per cent Initial pressure (-400 ft) 2,234 psia Pressure April 1954 (-400 ft) 1.327 psia At high structural positions much of the better sandstone has connate water content of only 2 to 5 per cent as indicated by the coring of wells with oil in nearby Tensleep fields. In special imbibition tests, samples readily imbibed oil but repelled water. In tests on crushed samples, the sand grains rapidly settled in oil and carbon tetrachloride but formed a stable unsinking floc in water. This information indicates that the Tensleep sand is preferentially oil wet. The oil produced averages 29' API gravity and has a high sulfur content. Extensive sampling and testing have established the fact that characteristics of reservoir oil in this field vary greatly with structure, see Fig. 2. Additional detail on the variation of oil characteristics with structure at Elk Basin may be found in Reference 2. At original reservoir pressure the oil was undersatu-rated with gas, the bubble point being 1,250 psi at the crest but only 500 psi at the lowest elevation sampled. As noted on Fig. 2, other fluid properties—reservoir volume factor. solution ratio, gravity, viscosity, and hydrogen sulfide content—likewise vary greatly. These variations complicate mathematical analysis, for it is necessary to average these characteristics in order to enter them into reservoir engineering expressions. To further complicate analysis, sand-face pressure also varies greatly because of the increase in fluid head down structure. As an approximation, average properties under initial conditions may be read from Fig. 2 at the -450-ft elevation.

Jan 1, 1956

LIMA, PERU Established May, 1952 (Official year begins in June) Luncheon meetings third Wednesday monthly Ernesto A Baertl, Chairman Arthur C Hall, Chairman-Elect Raymond R Beard, First Vice-Chairman Edgardo Portaro, Second Vice-Chairman Walter E King, Secretary-Treasurer Av Santa Cruz 331 San Isidro, Lima, Peru Alberto E Brazzini, Asst Treasurer Daniel M Rodriguez, Asst Secretary, '58, Section Delegate '58, Alternate Section Delegate

Jan 1, 1956

By Louis A. Panek

The practice of roof bolting, now recognized as an effective method of support, is based largely on rule of thumb. Among the various applications of bolting, the support of stratified mine roof is by far the most common. The general principles relating to this type of reinforcement are presented in two companion reports; the first describes the function of the bolts, the bolting pattern, and the behavior of bolted roof (1), 2/ and the second describes the design of the models and the theory of the experimental method (2). This report presents a rational method for designing systems of vertical bolts to reinforce horizontally bedded mine roof, developed from model tests. The structure treated herein may be described as follows: The immediate roof, consisting of beds of like material and equal thickness with no bond between them, is reinforced by vertical bolts installed in straight lines across the opening; the case of suspension is excluded because the bolts are assumed not to extend above the immediate roof. The assumption is made that the behavior of the lowest bed approximates that of a rectangular plate clamped along two opposite sides (the ribs). These specifications represent approximately the roof conditions encountered in mining bedded deposits of all kinds - coal, potash, iron ore, etc. Thus, for the design of a roof-bolting system a quantitative solution to the following problem is required: For a roof composed of beds of given thickness and physical properties, how does the support depend upon the length, spacing, and tightness of the bolts?

Jan 1, 1956

By A. W. Dana, F. J. Shortsleeve, A. R. Troiano

The phenomenon of flake formation which may occur during cooling or room temperature aging of large steel sections is caused by a combination of hydrogen and stress. As such, the transformation characteristics of austenite in a particular section play a major role in the occurrence of flakes. Isothermal and continuous cooling studies demonstrated that flake formation is particularly sensitive to nature, distribution, and relative proportions of the microconstituents in the cooled sections. In the absence of transformation stresses, abnormally high hydrogen contents could be tolerated without flaking. Flakes were not found in the absence of transformation stresses. No correlation existed between average hydrogen content and flake formation where cooling stresses were low. Hydrogen in the steel was a necessary but not sufficient condition for flake formation. DESPITE a long history of laboratory and commercial investigations, the mechanics of hairline crack or flake formation in large steel sections remains unresolved. Recent publications1-5 emphasize that flaking is still a serious problem.* immediate cause of flaking is the pressure exerted by entrapped hydrogen gas that collects in small internal cavities or voids during cooling. When the temperature of steel is low enough to preclude extensive plastic flow, the cavity pressures cause local brittle fractures (flakes). 2—The microsegregation and transformation stress theory. According to this theory, flaking results from stresses arising from the volume changes accompanying the formation of martensite and/or low temperature bainite after a large portion of the section has transformed at elevated temperatures. The proponents of the hydrogen theory suggest that stresses from other sources may be additive to the stresses produced by hydrogen and may, in some cases, provide the increment of stress necessary to produce flakes. However, the critical aspect of this theory is that no stress, except that produced by hydrogen pressure, is believed to be sufficient in itself to produce flakes. For practical considerations, this means that the only safe thermal cycle is one that reduces the hydrogen content to some low critical level below which flaking will not occur regardless of the state of transformation. On the other hand, the transformation stress theory does not rule out the embrittling effect of hydrogen. This theory simply proposes that flaking does not occur in the absence of transformation stresses. With the transformation stress theory as a basis, commercial antiflaking cycles would be designed to complete the transformation of austenite prior to cooling to ambient temperatures. Both of these theories appear compatible with industrial experience. Antiflaking cycles, such as cooling at extremely conservative rates or soaking for periods of time in the upper subcritical temperature ranges prior to cooling to ambient temperatures, may allow the following: 1—diffusion of hydrogen out of the section and, as a consequence, reduction of the hydrogen content to some safe minimum value (hydrogen pressure theory) and 2—complete decomposition of the austenite at rela-

Jan 1, 1956

By George M. Schwartz, Ian L. Reid

THE Soudan mine in the Vermilion district of northeastern Minnesota is the oldest iron mine in the state. It has shipped ore every year since 1884 and still contributes a yearly quota of high grade lump ore. No comprehensive report on the Vermilion iron-bearing district has appeared since Clements' monograph,' but Gruner2 discussed the possible origin of the ores in 1926, 1930, and 1932, and recently Reid and Hustad have added data on mining and geology .3, 4 For many years geologists of the Oliver Iron Mining Div., U. S. Steel Corp., have kept up to date a series of plans and vertical sections of the Soudan mine. In connection with mine operation considerable diamond drilling has been done, and this, together with the mine openings, has permitted a reasonably accurate picture of the structure of the orebodies and wall rocks. It has long been evident to geologists familiar with the mine that the ores were not a result of weathering, a point emphasized by Gruner in 1926 and 1930. As the deeper orebodies were developed it also became clear that replacement had played an important part in their development. In recent years it has been recognized that other iron ores were formed by replacement, as Roberts and Bartly5 have argued strongly for the deposits at Steep Rock Lake. On the basis of these facts G. M. Schwartz suggested to members of the Oliver staff that it would be desirable to study the evidence of replacement, particularly the possible alteration of the wall rock which would be expected if the replacement was a result of hypogene solutions. Rock Formations: The formations directly involved in the iron orebodies of the Soudan mine are few though far from simple. The country rock is largely the Ely greenstone of Keewatin age consisting of a mass of metamorphosed lava flows, tuffs, and intrusives which have been more or less altered by hydrothermal solutions. The predominant rock is chlorite schist. Interbedded with the original flows and tuffs are a series of beds and lenses of jasper to which the name Soudan formation has been applied. In the Vermilion district the term jaspilite has been used for interbanded jasper and hematite. According to modern usage these jasper or jaspilite beds do not comprise a formation separate from the Ely greenstone, inasmuch as the beds of jasper are interbedded with the flows and tuffs of the upper part of the greenstone. It would more nearly accord with modern usage to consider the Soudan beds a member of the upper part of the Ely formation. Because of incomplete rock exposure and exploration the number of interbedded jaspilite beds is unknown. In the mine, however, as many as nine major beds of jasper are known on a cross-section of one limb of the syncline, with an equal number on the other limb. In addition diamond drill cores show beds of greenstone down to half an inch in thickness. The thin beds are probably always tuffs. Structure: Rock structure in the Soudan area is complex, and because there are no recognizable horizons within the greenstone it is extremely difficult to work out the details. Generally speaking, the major regional structure is an anticlinorium, the axis trending east-west, with a westerly pitch. The Soudan mine is related to a synclinal structure on the north limb of the anticline about a mile from the west nose of the folded iron formation. The general structure at the mine is that of a closely folded minor syncline on the major regional anticline. A cross fault has dropped the east side so that the bottom of the syncline has not been reached, whereas to the west it is well shown by the mine openings and diamond drill exploration. Throughout the mine the beds of jasper, and ore-bodies that have replaced the jasper, normally dip northward at angles of 80" or steeper. In detail the jasper beds are extremely folded, probably as a result of deformation while they were still relatively unconsolidated. Orebodies: Ore in the Soudan mine is mainly a hard, dense, bluish hematite. Locally ore has been brecciated and cemented by quartz. The vugs commonly occurring near the borders of orebodies are lined with quartz crystals. They seem to have formed as part of the ore-forming process and are evidence that no folding or compression of the ore has taken place. The orebodies are numerous, varying greatly in size. Many lenses of high grade hematite are too small to be mined. Some of the larger orebodies have been followed vertically for as much as 2500 ft and horizontally up to 1500 ft. The large ore-bodies are extremely irregular in outline in the plane of the beds of jaspilite. In width they are more regular, as they are strictly governed by the width of the jaspilite beds and the greenstone wall rock, which seems to have resisted replacement by hematite. At many places the orebodies replace the jaspilite completely and have a footwall and hanging wall of greenstone. At other places either one or both walls may be jaspilite. Geologists who have studied the orebodies in recent years agree that evidence for the replacement origin of the hematite bodies seems conclusive. AS noted above, many of the orebodies replace jaspilite beds from wall to wall with no evidence whatever of compaction. The replacement origin is also supported by details of the banding which is characteristic of the

Jan 1, 1956

By R. J. Quigg, G. P. Conard, J. F. Libsch

IN a recent investigation of the Mn-Ge system by Zwicker it was reported that two inter-metallic compounds in this system, Mn,Ge, and Mn,Ge,, exhibited ferromagnetic properties. Of these, Mn,Ge, was reported as "strongly magnetic" and Mn,Ge, was said to be "weakly magnetic" but no actual values were given. In a study of magnetic alloys of nonmagnetic elements sponsored by the United States Army Signal Corps at Lehigh University, test bars having the nominal composition of these compounds were prepared by pressing elemental powders and sintering them in a purified helium atmosphere. Magnetic values obtained on these compounds are reported in Tables I and 11. It should be cautioned that the test bars were somewhat porous and that X-ray patterns run on these materials indicated that the homogenization in the samples was not complete, but that in each case the compound reported on was the dominant phase. The (B-H) max and particularly the Br values for pure dense M&Ge, can, therefore, be expected to be somewhat higher than those reported herein, while those for Mn,Ge, may be in error in either direction. Further details on this investigation are available in previous publications.23

Jan 1, 1956

By W. G. Scott

IT IS APPROPRIATE that your Institute should have chosen, for its 1956 Annual General Meeting, the Capital City of a province which is making such rapid advances in mining. The railway industry is proud to be playing an active role in this development, expenditures on equipment and railway construction in the Province of Quebec alone in recent years being in ?excess of a quarter of a billion dollars. In looking up some background material for this address I ran across a definition of a mine by Mark Twain, the great American humorist, which I thought might amuse you. He said that a mine was "a hole in the ground owned by a liar". I am sure that if he were alive to witness the enormous value attached to Canada's mineral resources today he would quickly change his definition. Canada's postwar record of mining development has been staggering in its variety and enormity. Historically, only the ?construction of our transcontinental rail ways outranks the largest of three of these development projects - the aluminum undertaking at Kitimat; the Quebec-Labrador iron ore deposits ; and the petroleum and natural gas developments in Wes tern Canada.

Jan 1, 1956

An accelerated and coordinated program of coal research is believed by many to be a necessary step in assuring coal's proper position in the expanding energy market. The President's Advisory Committee on Energy Supplies and Resources Policy, for example, made the following recommendation: We recognize that coal is a great national asset and endorse a cooperative study to determine what research and development could be undertaken. The coal industry and both Federal and State Governments should participate in this study and its costs. Representatives of the coal industry have agreed that such a study should be initiated. Accordingly, Felix E. Wormser, Assistant Secretary - Mineral Resources, United States Department of the Interior, requested the Bureau of Mines and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., to conduct a survey of current research on bituminous coal. In addition to this survey, studies were made to determine research projects that would be of value to the coal industry.

Jan 1, 1956

By Louis A. Panek

Roof bolting has been known for many years, although the practice had very limited application before 1948. Since then, bolting has been introduced as a systematic method of support in more than 700 coal mines and more than 200 noncoalmines and other underground openings in rock. By far the greatest number of bolts are used to support bedded roof. This is largely because of their use in coal mines, although roof bolts are used in mining bedded deposits of all kinds -potash (New Mexico), trona (Wyoming), and ores of iron (Alabama), lead (Missouri), uranium (Utah), lead-zinc (Utah), and copper (Michigan and Arizona). Thus, bolting has been successfully employed to reinforce bedded roof under a wide range of conditions despite the limited knowledge of the principles involved. This report develops the basic principles of bolting bedded roof based on elementary beam theory and on the results of tests intended to prove or disprove certain fundamental premises. Specifically, the objectives were to gain an understanding of the function of the bolts and the behavior of bolted roof and to establish standard bolt patterns. A combination of theoretical and experimental analysis was employed. The experimental method consisted of testing mine -roof models in a centrifuge. The models, the test procedure, and the model-prototype relations are described in a companion report (1)2/. A second companion report presents a method for designing systems of vertical bolts to reinforce bedded roof (2).

Jan 1, 1956

By G. H. Turner, R. C. Bell, E. Peters

Zinc oxide activities in a typical lead blast furnace slag have been calculated from plant operating data. These activities were used to assess the probable effect of fuel composition, oxygen enrichment, and air preheating on the efficiency and capacity of the slag-fuming operation. THE physical chemistry of zinc fuming has been examined with three objectives in mind: 1—to predict conditions favorable to increasing furnace capacity, 2—to predict the changes required to fume zinc more economically, and 3—to explain reported differences in the efficiencies of various slag-fuming plants. This study, made at ail in the plants and laboratories of The Consolidated Mining and Smelting Co. of Canada Ltd., developed from a program undertaken some three years ago on behalf of the AIME Extractive Metallurgy Div. subcommittee on slag fuming. Lead metallurgists first became interested in the recovery of zinc from lead blast furnace slags in 1905 and 1906. An excellent review of the early experimental work has been made by Courtney,' who described blast furnace, reverberatory furnace, and converter methods of fuming zinc from slag. Some of the investigators did not appreciate the importance of reducing the zinc oxide content of the slag to metal in order to fume it, since they tried compressed air blast without fuel in their earliest attempts. However, by 1908, the importance of reducing the zinc was established.' In 1925, the Waelz process for the recovery of zinc oxide from oxidized zinc ores was developed in Germany.' This process was not readily adaptable to lead blast furnace slags because of the difficulty in handling fusible charges in a kiln. What appears to have been the first slag-fuming operation as it is known was commenced by the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. at East Helena, Mont. in 1927." The first Trail furnace was completed in 1930, and this was followed by the construction of several other slag-fuming plants. During the period in which slag fuming has been extensively employed, little development of the chemistry of this process as a whole has taken place. Several good papers on the petrography of lead blast furnace slags have been published,""= but these studies could do little more than establish the forms in which lead and zinc occur in the initial charge and final products of the slag-fuming operation. In recent years, zinc-smelting problems have been ap- proached from a thermodynamic point of view. Maier has published an excellent thermodynamic treatment of zinc smelting." The important thermodynamic properties of zinc and its compounds have been determined and checked by other investigators.' However, to the best of the authors' knowledge, no thermodynamic treatment of the fuming of zinc from slag has been published. A thermodynamic study of any process requires that the essential chemistry of that process be known. In slag fuming there appear to be some differences of opinion as to whether the active reducing agent is elemental carbon or carbon monoxide. Furthermore, some observers have noted that high volatile coals appear to be more efficient than low volatile coals, indicating that hydrogen is also an important factor in the reducing efficiency of a fuel. That both hydrogen and carbon monoxide are effective reducing agents for the zinc oxide content of lead blast furnace slags can be demonstrated readily by introducing these gases into a slag bath held in a neutral vessel at 2100°F (1150°C). Elemental carbon also will reduce zinc oxide, but it is improbable that much free carbon is available for reduction of zinc, as the reaction between the finely powdered coal and air should be largely completed before the solid coal particles reach the slag. Some large-scale fuming experiments using gaseous hydrocarbons have been carried out by other investigators, but, as far as is known, these have not been developed yet into operating processes. The thermodynamic treatment in this paper is based on the following reactions: 1—to supply the thermal requirements C+V2O2- CO [1] C + 0,-CO, [2] H2+ ~z0,-H,O 131 and 2—to reduce ZnO ZnO + CO + Zn + CO, c41 ZnO + H, e Zn + H,O. [51 The furnace-gas composition also is controlled by the equilibrium constant of the familiar water-gas reaction H,O + CO + CO, + H2. C6l In order for the thermodynamic calculations to be quantitatively applicable, it is necessary that the chemical reactions to which they are being applied

Jan 1, 1956

By Carl Belser

This paper, covering Chaffee, Fremont, Gunnison, Lake, Larimer, Park, and Summit Counties, Colo., is the second of a series reporting on the tungsten potential of the Colorado region. The assembled information was obtained by examination of some properties, personal contacts with owners, and access to unpublished reports by other engineers. The tungsten-bearing areas of the 7 counties cover approximately 400 square miles and are in 10 distinct areas, which vary in size (fig. 1) from 1 square mile up to 290 square miles. The tungsten mineral wolframite was discovered by a man named Hackay near Dale on the Florence & Cripple Creek Railroad in the early 1900's, and wolframite and hubnerite were noted at Climax and the adjacent areas in Lake and Summit Counties at an early date, but no records of shipment from any of the areas are available before World War II. It is not known when scheelite was first discovered, but it was recognized in the Stockton mine during World War I. In the counties listed 64 properties are known to contain tungsten; of these, 18 have had some commercial output, although only 3 of them produced in 1953. The total production through 1953 is estimated at 115,000 short-ton units of tungsten trioxide. In 1953 by far the major portion came from the Climax mine.

Jan 1, 1956

By P. L. De Bruyn

The adsorption density of dodecylammonium ions at the quartz-solution interface has been Theadsorptiondensitydetermined as a function of collector concentration and pH. A ten thoushasbeenandfold range of amine salt concentration was covered at neutral pH. Experimental results show that over a thousandfold concentration range at neutral pH, the adsorption density (I) is proportional to the square root of collector concentration. Except at high concentrations, I increases with increases with increasing pH, but in general this effect is surprisingly small. . , . . A critical pH curve has been established for the flotation of quartz with dodecylammonium acetate. The conditions along the flotation curve are correlated with the adsorption measurements. THE behavior of collectors at the mineral-solution interfaces is usually explained in terms of an ionic adsorption process. Through the distribution of collector ions between the solid surface and the- co-existing solution phase the mineral is believed to acquire a water-repellent surface coating. Quantitative adsorption studies have been made on simple flotation systems1-4 only within the last few years. Such investigations were made possible by the adoption of the radiotracer method of analysis. As a consequence of these studies a new parameter has been added to aid the understanding of the flotation process. The research investigation to be discussed in this paper was undertaken to obtain a better understanding of the behavior of a cationic-type collector. This objective was approached through the determination of the distribution of dodecylammonium acetate between the quartz-solution interface and the solution as a function of the collector salt concentration and pH. To bring this investigation to focus on the more practical aspect of flotation research, an attempt was also made to correlate the adsorption results with actual flotation tests. Quartz: A —100 mesh ground crystalline quartz was infrasized; the products of the third and fourth cones were mixed together and reserved for experimental purposes. This stock material was cleaned by leaching in boiling concentrated HC1. After leaching the quartz was rinsed with distilled water until the filtrate showed no trace of chloride ian. It was then washed several times and dried. The qwrtz had a specific surface of 1400 cma per g as deterhined by the krypton gas adsorption method. Collector: The distribution of dodecylammonium acetate between the quartz surface and the solution phase was determined by the radiotracer method of analysis with carbon 14 as the tracer element. The radioactive amine salt with C" synthesized into the hydrocarbon chain5 was supplied by Armour and Co. The tracer element was located adjacent to the polar group. The radioactive salt as received had a specific activity of about 0.14 mc per g. When desired, dilution of this activity was effected by addition of non-radioactive dodecylammonium acetate also supplied by Armour and Co. ........ All other inorganic reagents used in this research were of reagent grade. Conductivity water was used for making up all solutions. Adsorption Tests: Two different experimental methods were used. In the first, to be designated as the agitation method, a weighed amount of quartz and a measured volume of amine salt solution were agitated in a 100-ml or 50-ml glass-stoppered pyrex graduated cylinder. The cylinder was filled with solution up to the stopper, since erratic results were obtained when an air space was left over the suspension. Time of agitation varied from 1 to 2 hr. Preliminary tests at different agitation times showed that the amount adsorbed remained constant for all agitation times exceeding 1/2 hr. After this conditioning period, the solids were separated from the solution by filtration through a Buechner fritted-disk funnel. The solution was re-circulated 10 times or more to allow the fused silica disk to come to equilibrium with it. Determinations of the amount of amine adsorbed on the frit itself indicated that this amount was less than 10 pct by weight of the amine acetate abstracted by 10 g of quartz. The funnel with quartz covered by a thin layer of solution was then centrifuged for approximately 5 min, at which time the moisture content of the solids was reduced to about 5 pct by weight. The wet quartz was blown into a tared beaker, re-weighed and allowed to dry at room temperature. A final weighing was then made to determine the moisture content. The second experimental method, similar to the procedure adopted by Gaudinand Bloecher,' will be referred to as the column method. Two liters of solution were passed through a bed of quartz contained in a Buechner funnel attached to a pyrex separatory funnel by means of a ball and socket joint. Preliminary tests showed that increasing the volume of solution above 2 liters does not give a measurable increase in adsorption. From 4 to 4 1/2 hr were required for 2 liters of solution to pass through the column. The moisture content of the quartz was again reduced to a minimum by centrifuging. A slightly modified column apparatus was used for experimenting with alkaline amine solutions. The same basic unit was used, but the underflow from the Buechner funnel was again fed into a Separafory

Jan 1, 1956

By A. C. Johnson

The Bureau of Mines explored the Three Kids deposit in 1941 as part of a strategic minerals program. Earlier mining and exploration had established the presence of a substantial tonnage of medium-grade wad ore, and drilling and sampling by the Bureau of Mines, in collaboration with the Federal Geological Survey, indicated an additional tonnage such that development and exploitation became more clearly feasible. Private interests, with Government support, undertook to produce metallurgical-grade manganese. The present paper describes the Bureau of Mines exploration and subsequent development. Manganese in the Three Kids area is found in one of the lower members of the Muddy Creek formation in a bed of fine sandstone and silt, which outcrops around the north edge of the River Mountains and generally dips 20° to 40° away from the hills. There is considerable variation in the thickness and grade of the ore. The ore is light weight, having a density of 1.2 to 2.

Jan 1, 1956

By W. Chubb

By measuring the hardness of metals at temperatures just above and just below their allotropic change point, it has been established that crystal structure has a real effect upon the strength of metals. The DPH of cobalt, iron, titanium, uranium, and zirconium have been measured at temperatures up to 1000°C. It was found that the body-centered-cubic crystal structure is always the softer structure when it is involved in an allotropic transformation. The close-packed and more complex structures are inherently harder, and may be expected, therefore, to be better base materials for high strength alloys. IT has been observed that for metals with nearly the same melting point (i.e., tin and lead, magnesium and aluminum) the metal with the more complex crystal structure has a higher tensile strength and hardness. It might be asked whether this effect is really caused by the difference in crystal structure; and, if so, just what is the contribution of crystal structure to the strength of these metals. A qualitative answer to these questions can be obtained by measuring the change in hardness produced by the change in structure in metals exhibiting allotropic forms. The evidence for changes in mechanical properties during allotropic transformations is rather meager. In 1909, Rosenhain and Humfrey' observed that "ß" iron showed much less deformation at the transformation temperature than a iron. By means of a torsion test, Lee found that iron bars were "critically plastic" at the a-7 transformation temperature. Sauerwald and Knehans have shown that the dynamic hardness of iron increases between 900" and 1000°C. In 1930, Albert Sauveur' presented data on the hardness, tensile strength, and torsional strength of pui-e iron up to 1000°C. He concluded, "At 900°C, the a iron transforms into y iron, and this is accompanied by increased strength and stiffness and decreased ductility." The same year, Schischokin" obtained data on the hardness of thallium at temperatures above and below its transformation temperature. His data are replotted on semilogarithmic coordinates as Fig. 1. The fact that his data fall on straight lines in this type of plot is believed to attest to the purity of his metal and the accuracy of his results. In 1941, Nadai and Manjoine" obtained tensile data on pure iron with an indicated increase in strength at about 900°C. These experiments make it quite evident that changes in mechanical properties occur when a metal transforms from one crystal structure to another; but, except for Schischokin's data on thallium, none of the measurements seem accurate enough to determine the relative magnitude of the mechanical property change. Materials The metals that have been examined for changes in hardness during transformation include l—as- deposited commercial electrolytic cobalt about 99.7 pct pure, 2—Armco ingot iron, 3—are-melted iodide titanium of a purity in excess of 99.8 pct, 4—uranium of a purity in excess of 99.5 pct, 5—are-melted iodide zirconium of a purity in excess of 99.8 pct, 6—annealed, 0.08 pct C, rimmed steel, and 7—commercially pure RC55 titanium. While the purity of the first five of these materials leaves something to be desired, it will be noted that the observed hardness discontinuities occurred at the accepted transformation temperatures. (These temperatures are indicated by vertical arrows in Figs. 1 and 3 through 7.) The last two materials are commercial alloys introduced to show the effect of minor alloying elements upon the hot hardness curve. Apparatus Hardnesses at elevated temperatures were determined by means of a vacuum hot hardness machine. A diagram showing the basic features of this machine appears as Fig. 2. This machine is essentially a deadweight hardness .machine in a furnace within a vacuum chamber. The sapphire-tipped indentor

Jan 1, 1956

The great problem at Port Pirie and many other lead smelters has always been to keep the lead content of the slags down to a low level. This has been done in the past largely by empirical methods, the lead content varying from less than 1 per cent to over 4 per cent, the more usual figure being something under 2 per cent. Subsidiary to this, but of major importance in the future, was the extraction of the considerable quantities of zinc in the slag. At this stage little was known about the constitution of the slags apartfrom their chemical composition. Some early work on slag constitution was carried out in the B.H.A.S. Research Laboratories between 1919 and 1921, but except for a microscopic examination of a few thin sections the greater part of this investigation wasdevoted to the recovery of the zinc content of the slag by leaching methods.In 1949, therefore, it was decided to initiate a programme of fundamental research into the constitution and properties of the lead blast furnace slags. The information thus gained would give a clearer picture of reactions taking place in the slag, both in the blast furnace and during dezincing.There was also the hope that these results would lead to improved industrial techniques resulting in smaller lead losses, and, taking the long-term view, to efficient methods of producing zinc from the slags.A series of investigations was therefore begun at various centres over a period of time. These were:1. A mineralogical examination of the slags by Dr. A. B. Edwards of the Mineragraphic Section, C.S.I.R.O.2. A study of the thermodynamics of various slag com...

Jan 1, 1956

By Rex E. Cheek, Donald E. Menzie

The fluid mapper, a model relatively new to the petroleum industry, was used to study the effect of various mobility ratios on the areal sweepout efficiency for two typical spacing patterns. The experiments indicated the areal sweepout for the five-spot pattern varied from 51.8 per cent at a mobility ratio of 0.093 to 89.1 per cent for a ratio of 24.4. In the direct line-drive pattern, the areal sweepout varied from 58.7 per cent at a mobility ratio of 0.089 to 92.0 per cent at a ratio of 24.8. The fluid mapper may prove useful to determine quickly the effective areal sweepout for any well spacing. INTRODUCTION The effect of the mobility ratio on the areal sweepout efficiency during primary depletion of a water drive reservoir and during secondary recovery operations has recently become more widely recognized The mobility ratio, M, is defined as: _ kjp (displaced fluid) k/u (displacing fluid) where k = effective permeability u = viscosity When the displacing fluid is miscible with the displaced fluid, the permeabilities are equal and the mobility ratio may be expressed as a ratio of viscosities: u (displacing fluid) u (displaced fluid) The mathematical analysis for calculating the areal sweepout efficiency with mobility ratio other than unity is quite tedious.5,11 An experimental method by using a potentiometric model2 in a step-wise manner and in using an X-ray shadowgraph model3,12 with continuous fluid flow has been published. Several types of models have been used to study oil and gas reservoir performance. These models may be classified as physical, electrolytic, potentiometric, X-ray shadowgraph, and fluid mapper. The X-ray shadowgraph and fluid mapper are models relatively new to petroleum engineering and have not been used extensively for specific applications. The theory of the fluid mapper indicates it may be adapted to a study of areal sweepout efficiencies for various mobility ratios as well as other complex problems in petroleum engineering. The use of the model and results obtained when using displacing and displaced fluids of equal densities but different viscosities are discussed. FLUID MAPPER DEVELOPMENT H. S. Hele-ShawV eveloped a fluid mapper model based on the hydrodynamic theory. This theory is that in the steady flow of a viscous fluid between horizontal parallel plates spaced a very small distance apart, the effect of viscous shear is of such magnitude in the vertical plane that the motion in the horizontal plane is practically undisbrted streamline flow. Techniques developed by Hele-Shaw were not expanded and no additional developments in fluid mapper models were forthcoming until A. D. Moore, University of Michigan, published a series of papers starting in 1949, which describe the construction of a flexible and inexpensive model'h nd the fluid mapper technique for the solution of certain problems.' The essential components of the fluid mapper as developed by Moore are::.ln 1. A base slab. made of dental stone (calcium sulphate and water). which is shaped to represent the prototype. 2. Plate glass slightly larger than the slab and spaced

Jan 1, 1956