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Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1947

By R. H. Olds, B. H. Sage

The formation volume and volume of the liquid phase of oil and gas obtained from four fields in the San Joaquin Valley have been investigated at pressures, temperature, and gas-oil ratios comparable to those encountered in underground reservoirs. All the fields covered in this investigation yielded a product of a gas-oil ratio in excess of 5000 cu ft per barrel and the gravity of the tank oil for the four fields in question varied between 52° and 63' API. The results of the investigation, together with analytical data concerning the composition of the oil and gas, are submitted in tabular form. Rough correlations of the formation volume as a function of pressure, temperature, and gas-oil ratio and of the retrograde dew-point pressure as a function of gas-oil ratio, temperature, and gravity of tank oil are presented. It was not found feasible to correlate simply the formation volume of the liquid phase as a function of the applicable variable. It is desired to emphasize that these correlations are considered applicable only to the range of conditions covered in this investigation and for systems of similar nature and composition. Introduction Information concerning the physical properties of mixtures of oil and gas from particular fields have often been employed in predicting the situations obtaining in underground reservoirs. One of the earlier studies of this nature was the work of Beecher and Parkhurst,1 while a more recent study of the Dominguez Field2 presented detailed volumetric data in the two-phase as well as in the single-phase regions. Although these studies were confined to individual fields, their results proved of value in application to other fields. It has recently been shown 3,4 that it is possible in the region of low gas-oil ratios* to correlate the volumetric behavior of naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures from a single geographical area with sufficient accuracy to be of industrial value. For this reason it is considered of interest to submit information concerning the volumetric behavior of oil and gas mixtures from four different fields in the San Joaquin Valley and, in combination with similar published data5 concerning mixtures of oil and gas from the Paloma field in the same area, to show rough correlations between the composition and the behavior of materials from these fields. This effort seems particularly worth while since all of the

Jan 1, 1947

By P. H. Cardwell

The effect of various plastics upon the permeability of a sand and the mechanism of their ensuring permeability within the consolidated sand body is discussed. Data are presented on various properties of the plastic materials used in sand consolidation and the effect of temperature and usable temperature ranges are considered. The recovery of petroleum from uncon-solidated sands presents serious production problems, owing to sloughing of the formation. The solution of some of these problems usually has been by mechanical methods.' The ideal way of controlling the sloughing tendencies of these un consolidated formations, however, is to prevent the movement of the individual sand grains by the use of a bonding medium. A step in the desired direction was taken by Irons and Stcesser2 when they taught the use of liquid plastics to produce a consolidating deposit that prevents sloughing. More recently, Wrightsman and Buckley3 proposed a modification of this process. In this use of the liquid plastic, the sand grains become coated and the ensuing hardening of the plastic by polymerization or condensation cements together the sand Particles. Liquid plastics that have been suggested for this Purpose are of the following types: phenolformaldehyde, alkyd resins, vinyl type resins, polystyrene and the acrylic esters. When the flow of fluids through a sand must not be materially reduced, it is essential only to cement together the sand grains with liquid plastic and leave a portion of the interstitial space for fluid flow. TO be assured of obtaining fluid flow through the sand interstices after injection of plastic, it has been necessary in the past to remove the excess plastic from the interstices between the particles before it sets. Wrightsman and Buckley suggest two methods for the removal of the excess plastic from the interstices of the sand: (I) to flush the excess plastic back into the formation, away from the well bore, by use of oil or water; (2) to produce the well before the plastic has set, thereby moving the excess plastic into the well bore. Under certain well conditions it is very difficult to remove the excess plastic from all parts of the formation by either of these methods and leave the formation consolidated with no sections completely sealed. The method* described herein of retaining permeability within a sand body is to use a liquid plastic that upon setting ensures permeability within the consolidated sand body. This cements the sand grains but obviates the need for removing plastic from the interstices of the sand. One of the ways of accomplishing this is to use a liquid plastic that occupies a considerably greater volume than the solidified resin it yields on further polymerization or condensation in situ. In order to be satisfactory, the volume of the plastic while liquid should be at least one and one half times the volume of the solid formed. Preferably,

Jan 1, 1947

By W. M. Mobley

The coal industry in Alabama, centered in Birmingham, has pioneered coal-bene-ficiation practice in the United States. The nature of the coal seams and mining methods employed have necessitated use of equipment and methods best adapted to the local conditions. Although all of the 30 or more coal seams now being mined in the state receive beneficiation, only the three most important producers of coking coals, the Pratt, Mary Lee and Black Creek, are discussed in detail. Nature of the seams, washability characteristics and equipment used are given as examples of the extent of work and progress in this field. The coal seams in Alabama are relatively thin and pitching, making mining difficult and expensive. Most of them are characterized by thin partings of rock or shale in the seam itself, as well as laminations of bone and rash. Mechanical mining methods have increased the occlusions from roof and floor to such an extent that nearly all the coal mined in the state must receive some treatment before it can be put on the market. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1943,1 18,129,792 tons of coal were mined in the state and 14,364,177 tons, or 79.2 per cent, received treatment. Excluding from the total the 1,223,014 tons produced by small wagon mines and the hand-picked lump coal, the amount re- ceiving beneficiation would be more than 90.00 per cent. This is, by far, greater than in any other coal-producing state. The earliest record of coal beneficiation in Alabama was the installation in 1890 of an experimental rig washer by Alexander Cunningham, for the Sloss Iron and Steel Co. at its blast furnace in Birmingham.* In 1894 the Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. introduced the English Robinson washer, a combination of a hydraulic classifier and centrifugal machine. Erskine Ramsay, who has contributed so much to the coal industry, saw its possibilities as well as its mechanical defects and soon had his inventive mind at work. He added a sludge tank of his own design, and many Robinson-Ramsay washers were installed in Alabama and other states. The Stewart jig appeared in 1900, followed by the Montgomery jig in 1910 and both have found extensive use. Increased interest in this field led to new designs, such as the American, Elmore, Burke and Faust. The first Baum-type Norton jig was operated in 1930 and within the last five years six large installations of this type have been made by the McNally-Pitts-burg, Jeffrey and Link-Belt Companies. Wet-washing tables were introduced in 1922 but not extensively used until recently. The two most popular types are the Deister-Overstrom and Deister Plat-O. The coal-cleaning equipment used in Alabama has been relatively simple, yet efficient, but as the amount of impurities in the raw coal has been increased by mechanical mining and labor costs have become higher, much interest has been shown in sand cones, froth flotation and

Jan 1, 1947

By Edward Pesout

The McGill smelter started operations in the year 1907. The smelter furnaces were fired with run-of-mine coal on grates until April 1911, when oil firing was introduced. Oil firing continued until April 1918, when the initial coal-pulverizing plant was started.' Early Pulverizing Plant Various alterations were made to that plant during its operation, one of the more important being in connection with the system for delivering pulverized coal. In order to minimize coal-dust explosions and fires, the return portion of the main delivery line was eliminated in the year 1928. Thereafter coal-dust explosions and fires were greatly reduced. Pulverized coal was prepared at this plant primarily for the reverberatory furnaces, but for several years it was also delivered to the converting plant, roasters and power-plant boilers by a system of auxiliary fans and delivery lines. During the period March 29 to April 8, 1929, one reverberatory furnace was fired with pulverized coal produced by an Aero, type J, unit coal pulverizer with a rated capacity of 5 tons per hour. This machine actually pulverized its rated capacity but the product was too coarse. After certain regulations, a her product was obtained but the pulverizer capacity decreased and this resulted in insufficient coal for efficient furnace operation. Table I gives a comparison of the average screen analyses of the pulverized-coal products from the impact-type unit pulverizer and the regular coal-plant installation. It was definitely proved that this size and type of unit pulverizer could not furnish sufficient coal of proper fineness to give smelting results comparable to that obtained with the regular coal-pulverizing plant. The coal from this unit pulverizer was so coarse that it did not ignite or burn properly and thus did not produce the proper heat for efficient smelting. During the latter part of 1929 and the early part of 1930, experimental work was conducted with a 7-ft. o-in. by 48-in. Hardinge conical ball-mill coal-grinding unit, which was installed alongside a furnace in the reverberatory building. Results obtained from the test run indicated that this unit would furnish sufficient coal of proper fineness for good smelting.

Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1947

By D. L. Marshall, O. F. Thornton

Results of the determination of the inter stitial water content of several core samples from oil reservoirs are presented. Data obtained by the capillary pressure method, which has recently been developed, are compared with water saturations measured in cores cut with oil-base mud and with values calculated from the electrical resistivity of the formation. The agreement between the capillary pressure and other methods, combined with the fact that similar agreement has been obtained by others, indicates that the capillary method properly applied yields results sufficiently accurate for most engineering purposes. In some cases, it may be possible to extend the utility of data obtained with the capillary pressure method by correlation of interstitial water saturation with more easily measured physical properties of the media. Introduction Several methods are in use for determining or for estimating the interstitial water saturation at given points within oil and gas reservoirs. The direct measurement of the water content of cores obtained with nonaqueous fluid in the hole is believed to be an accurate method under most conditions. The water saturation may be calculated by use of the resistivity curves of the electric log,' although this method is not applicable under conditions that exist in some reservoirs. Recently, a method has been developed and described3.' wherein the interstitial water saturation of cores is measured at a capillary pressure such that conditions existing in the reservoir are simulated. The purpose of this paper is to present data obtained by use of this latter method, and to compare the results obtained with determinations made by other means. Method The theory underlying the capillary pressure method applied to petroleum reservoirs has been discussed adequately in the literature by Garrison,2 Leverett,5 and Others.3,6,7 Briefly, and simply, capillary pressure is defined as the difference in pressure between two contacting fluid phases, such as oil and water. For the simplified sand, water and oil system illustrated in Fig I, the pressure difference can be stated as follows:6 where Pc is the capillary pressure in pounds per square inch, ? is the interfacial tension between oil and water in pounds per inch, r1 and r2 are the radii of curvature of the interface between oil and water in inches. Capillary pressure varies in a given reservoir with depth because of the greater density of the water phase as compared with oil or gas. The following equation expresses the difference in pressure between two points: p1- p2 - h?p/144 [2] where p1 — p2 is the capillary pressure difference in pounds per square inch, h is

Jan 1, 1947

By R. A. Stauffer

THE chief ore of lithium is spodumene, a lithium-aluminum silicate containing up to 3 pct lithium. The preparation of lithium salts from spodumene is costly because of the low concentration of the metal and the difficulty of separating it from the other alkali metals present. Dr. Kroll's and Dr. Schlecten's recent paper' has reviewed various methods proposed for preparation of lithium. It will be seen from this paper that the methods proposed to date have required one or another of the lithium salts as a raw material. The high cost of these salts has been the chief item of expense in the lithium metal produced. This situation has made it interesting to investigate the possibility of producing the metal directly from spodumene. When spodumene is calcined at 1000°C in the presence of lime, lithium oxide is replaced in the ore as is evidenced by the fact that it may be leached from the reaction mixture with water.2 Free energy calculations suggested that lithium oxide might be reduced with aluminum or silicon and the lithium produced distilled from the reaction mixture by heating to about 1000°C in a vacuum. These facts taken together suggested that it might be possible to prepare lithium metal directly from spodumene by heating a mixture of the ore, lime, and a suitable reducing agent in vacuum and distilling off the lithium metal as formed. THE REPLACEMENT OF Li20 IN SPODUMENE A series of experiments were undertaken to determine the ratio of lime to spodumene necessary to free substantially all the lithium oxide present in the ore. The spodumene used in these experiments was supplied by Foote Mineral Co. in the form of powder of about 200 mesh. Analysis of the spodumene was as follows: [ ] Lime (cp -200 mesh) was added in various ratios to spodumene and thoroughly mixed in a ball mill. Two hundred gram samples of spodumene-lime mixtures were charged loosely in fireclay crucibles and held at 1000°C in a gas-fired furnace for 5 hrs. The product in each case was ground to pass 140 mesh and then placed in a thimble in a soxhlet extractor. Extraction with water was carried on for 6 hrs. After this period the extract was reduced in volume by evaporation in order to precipitate dissolved lime and was then filtered and titrated with 1/4 normal hydrochloric acid. After correcting for residual calcium oxide in solution, the alkali present was calculated as lithium oxide. The results of these experiments are shown in Table I and Fig I. At lime-spodumene ratios less than 1.5, the products were invariably fused. At the ratio of 1.5 and above, the product was loosely sintered with little evidence of fusion. When the ratio of lime to spodumene was three, replacement of alkali oxides in the

Jan 1, 1947

By Howard N. Eavenson

WHEN the A.I.M.E. was formed 75 years ago the bituminous coal industry was in its swaddling clothes, although it had been operating for more than a century and coal was being mined in every state now producing it, and its output had long passed that of anthracite. In 18/1, the value of bituminous coal was about seventy per cent of the value of all metals produced and more than one fifth of the value of all products of mines, both metallic and nonmetallic.[1a] While many of the operating mines then shipped by rail, most of the development was along waterways, although the canal era of transportation was nearly at its end. Coal mining is a heavy industry and one of the best measures of its progress is its output throughout the period. Fig. 1 shows this graphically from 1800 to 1945. From 1870 to 1910, the production-which is very nearly the consumption-almost doubled every decade, a most amazing growth. In 1918, in World War I, a peak was reached and a decline began, which ended in 1932. A gradual recovery then started, interrupted in 1938 but culminating in the record output of 1944, when, owing to World War II, a tonnage of 619,576,000 was produced. It is evident that the forces leading to the continuous increase ending in 1918 have spent themselves and that only unusual conditions will require so large a production again. The postwar conditions of World War II will probably

Jan 1, 1947

By R. R. Knuckey

Having been associated with the operation of the de Vooys process for coal, which has treated 13,000,000 tons per annum, and recognizing the process as of value in ore sorting, Huntington, Heberlein and Co. Ltd. (Great Britain) in 1936 made an examination of all other existing methods. In none of the pioneer applications had recognition been given to the necessity for maintaining certain conditions that are essential for sorting certain ores if a truly efficient separation by gravity alone is to be assured. Consequently, in 1936-1937 Huntington, Heberlein and Co. Ltd., with Pearson, employing certain ideas connected with the de Vooys application, commenced the development of a separator that would allow conformance with optimum conditions in the zone where separation is effected. Later, Holt and Wade added to the value of the original application by Wuensch, Rakowsky and others, whose conceptions are being successfully operated today. Meantime, Trostler had enhanced the value of the original H-H. process by improvements that are now embodied in operating plants, and today the process incorporates an improved apparatus and a stable medium that produce the optimum conditions for separation. These conditions are: 1. Elimination of disturbing currents in the separating zone; 2. Reduction to a minimum of medium-density differences throughout the separating zone; 3. Stable medium of minimum viscosity to permit the unretarded fall of mineralized particles; 4. Removal of products of separation with minimum disturbance to the separating zone. Design of Separator The H-H. sink-and-float separator consists of a pyramidal tank in which the separation actually takes place, connected at the bottom with an inclined bucket elevator. The tank and the elevator are filled with medium to within a few inches of the top of the tank. Medium is fed into the separator at a variety of points, according to the type of ore being treated, and it is withdrawn from the separator at two points: (1) together with the float product, by means of a variable-speed addle, at the surface of the medium, and (2) by flowing over an adjustable weir cut in the side of the elevator casing. The prepared ore is fed onto the surface of the medium. The intermediate paddles, which revolve at a slow speed of 2 to 5 r.p.m., move the floating ore across the bath from feed end to float-discharge end. The ore, which is heavier than the medium, sinks below the sweep of the addles and reaches the boot of the bucket elevator, which discharges it without disturbance of the separating zone. These arrangements for withdrawing medium from the separator allow the use of minimum flows, which connote minimum

Jan 1, 1947

By G. J. Knighton

Introduction The Sullivan concentrator treats the complex lead-zinc-iron ore from the Sullivan mine of the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada, Limited, to make a lead and a zinc concentrate for its metallurgical plants at Trail. Three miles separate the mine and mill, which are situated near the town of Kimberley, in the East Kootenay district of British Columbia. The orebody consists typically of banded sulphides, mainly galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite. Important factors in the concentration of the ore are its exceedingly complex and its high specific gravity. It should be remembered throughout the paper that results and figures are based on Consolidated's experience with the Sullivan ore. The present mill feed rate is 8,500 dry tons of ore per 24 hours, for an operating week of five and a half days. Grinding and classification of the ore are carried out in three stages and, in addition, there is a re-grind section which re-treats the zinc middling. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the classification in the various stages and to give the results o comparative tests which have been carried out for the purpose of improving operations in the mill. The Primary stage consists of six units, each made up of a ball-mill and classifier (see accompanying flow-sheet). Four units operate in open circuit and two in closed circuit. The secondary stage consists of eight ball-mills operating in closed circuit with twenty-one classifiers. In the Tertiary stage are two ball-mills in closed circuit with eight classifiers. The re-treatment section for re-grinding the zinc middling comprises one ball-mill in closed circuit with two classifiers.

Jan 1, 1947

By S. A. Willis

For the past several months 1 have been considering the functions of this Society and its reasons for continuance. The fact that it is now sixty years old indicates that it must have been of value and we all know that it has contributed much that was worthwhile to Nova Scotia and the Maritime Provinces. The question arises: "What is the future of the Society, and how might its activities be altered to suit present-day activities and to be of even greater value?" Let us analyse the various activities in which we are interested and determine which, if any, are of more value than others. First of all, at least once a year we have a two-day convention which constitutes a holiday for the members and their wives. This has always been well planned and has been much enjoyed. Second, there are many social and business contacts made during the meetings and interim meetings. These certainly tend toward better relations and co-operation between the various people concerned. Mine operators meet other mine operators, engineers, people from the education fields, Department of Mines, and so forth. Various sales contacts are made at these meetings which can be of value and use to both the Company selling and the customer. Third, and of greatest importance in any conference, is the exchange of ideas by the members and by authorities from outside, and the presentation of slides and drawings, or actual visits to operations. It is upon this phase that 1 wish to elaborate. These papers are not only presented to our meetings but are generally published in the C.I.M. Bulletin so that members throughout the Dominion have access to them. Many important papers describing new phases of operations have originated through our Society.

Jan 1, 1947

Jan 1, 1947

By Peter M. Anderson

IN recent years many prophets have arisen who hold that gold has outlived its days and that its monetary use is now an anachronism. These prophets include well-known politicians, economists and businessmen. Some of them have called it a joke that metal should be dug up at heavy cost in Africa and elsewhere and shipped to the United States of America only to go underground again at Fort Knox. Others have claimed that all the gold in the world could be sunk in the ocean without anyone being the poorer. The fact that you have invited me to address you on the future of gold may perhaps reflect the fears caused by these various predictions. At present the prophets' taunts show no sign of coming true. The demand for gold is greater than ever before, although stocks held are the largest in history. Nearly all governments have gone to great lengths to suppress any demand that might be made by the public; they have reserved to themselves the right to hold gold and have lost no opportunity of satisfying their own demands. Where the public has been allowed to buy gold, the demand has proved impressively strong. In India the price of gold equals about $82 per fine ounce, having been $90 earlier in the year; in Egypt $65 to $70, after having been $87, and elsewhere it is even higher. In Palestine, for instance, the golden sovereign is traded at about £5, equivalent to $86 per fine ounce, having been nearly £6, equivalent to some $100 per fine ounce, earlier in

Jan 1, 1947

By R. L. Dietrich

[ ] We at The Dow Chemical Co. have recently done some work on the deformation of magnesium alloys and although it is far from complete there have been a few observations which may be of interest in connection with this paper. In the first place, I should like to point out that the deformation of polycrystalline magnesium alloys has not been completely explained by the work on single crystals. Bakarian and Mathewson found slip on the ( 101) and {002) planes, and (102) twinning as the deformation mechanisms in magnesium single crystals, but in compression when the (002} planes were within ii° of parallel t0 the compression surfaces, fracture occurred at all temperatures up to 340°C (644°F). In commercial working processes, particularly in rolling, an orientation is quickly produced which should be unfavorable to further deformation by the three established mechanisms. The first few reductions in rolling quickly produce an orientation having

Jan 1, 1947