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By T. L. Joseph

The size and accessibility of the Minnesota manganiferous iron ore deposits make them attractive as a potential source of erromanganese, which is essential in the production of steel. For several years the Bureau of Mines has been conducting experiments to determine the feasibility of producing ferromanganese from these ores by a three-step process which involves (1) the smelting of the ores in the blast furnaoe to produce a high-phosphorus spiegel; (2) the treatment of the spiegel produced from step 1 in an electric or open-hearth furnace to separate the manganese from the phosphorus and the iron; and 3) the smelting of the high-manganese slag from step 2 to produce forromanganese. The details of the first two steps of the process and the results of tests with the experimental furnaces Lave been given in previous reports.5 The m$ or part of the experimental work on the second step has been conducted in a half-ton open-hearth furnace. Some preliminary tests showed, however, that the electric furnace has some distinct advantages over the open hearth for producing, from high-phosphorus spiegel, a slag containing from 45 to 55 per cent manganese and phosphorus and iron in amounts required for ferro-grade ore. The electric furnace tests described in this paper were made to get more information as to the possibilities of the electric furnace in connection with this problem and to study the fluxing effect of alumina on high-manganese slags. Herty, Conley, and Royer have reported' results of laboratory tests which showed that slags containing from 60 to 75 per cent MnO, from 8 to 10 per cent S102, and small amounts of CaO MgO, and FeO, were sufficiently fluid at 1,450° to 1,550° C. to pour readily if 12 to 14 per cent alumina was present. With a normal A1203 content resulting from the A1203 in the

Jan 1, 1931

By M. W. Von Bernewitz

Fay's glossary3/ of terms contains the following definition of "black sand": Heavy grains of various minerals which have a dark color and. are usually found accompanying gold in alluvial deposits, for example, magnetite, chromite, ilmenite, cassiterite, tourmaline, and others. The Bureau of Mines is issuing this report in answer to the many inquiries from individuals and firms as to how they may treat or sell the heavy black sands that accumulate in the sluice boxes of beach and river placering and to warn such individuals and firms against becoming too enthusiastic over the chances of striking it rich. For a half century or longer much money, energy, and time have been wasted in devising, building, and trying numerous machines to recover gold and platinum, also gem stones, from sand that generally has not been worth the effort. Volumes have been written on the subject, and thousands of letters of inquiry have been received by agencies of the State and Federal Governments. The demand for information has been so great that all of the Bureau's publications dealing wholly or partly with black sands are out of print. They are listed at the end of this report.

Jan 1, 1938

By Richard H. Kennedy, G. A. Swanquist, John W. King, Frank F. McGinley, Dale C. Mathews, Hans H. Adler, E. C. Peterson, Ralph M. Wilde

INTRODUCTION From the first historical records of the discovery of uranium as an element and the attempted classification of its minerals in the early 18th century-through its first uses in pigmentation and the coloring of glasses and ceramic glazes-until 1939 when it was discovered that the isotope U235, was fissionable, uranium oxide in the form of pitchblende ores and concentrates (produced mainly in Bohemia, Canada, and the former Belgian Congo) in recent times was the source of uranium compounds incidental as byproducts to the recovery of radium from this invariable associated source. In 1938 this byproduct production from pitchblende concentrates was about 471 st of U3O8, with over 90% from Canada and the Belgian Congo and only 25.85 st from carnotite ores in the United States.1 Under the impetus of the Atomic Energy Commission's (AEC now part of the Energy Research Development Administration) domestic and foreign production incentives and buying programs, and as an initial assurance of atomic armament capability of the United States and the Free World, the growth of the uranium mining and milling industry burgeoned from 1952 to 1962. After a short period of decline, in the second decade and in large commitments beyond, it has again extended its capacity to meet ever-increasing fuel demands of atomic power generation by the electric utilities industry. In 1961 the peak production in the United States alone was 17,758 st of U3O8. Peak aggregate domestic and foreign deliveries of 34,581 st of U3O8 to the AEC occurred in 1960.z Canada's maximum delivery of 13,506 st of U308 was made in 1959. These peak and continued productions in the Free World are largely from: the Mesozoic (Jurassic) and Tertiary (Eocene) sandstones in the United States; the quartz pebble conglomerates of Canada and the Witwatersrand; pegmatites, Jurassic limestones, and Precambrian complexes, with less but significant production; the phosphoria, where byproduct production is minor. This uranium production in the form of precipitated concentrates has come from the milling of ores from these sources, both directly and by retreatment of gold cyanidation tailings on the Witwatersrand. Milling of crude ore has followed these processes: conventional crushing and size preparation, ore drying when required, salt roasting for high vanadium ores and byproduct vanadium recovery, carbonate or acid-leaching processes, classification sand-dine separations or countercurrent decantation (CCD) circuits and complete liquid-solids separations, resin-in-pulp (RIP) or liquid-liquid (solvent) ion-ex- change extractions, clarification of pregnant liquors, precipitation, filtration and washing, sodium and vanadium removals, and drying or roasting and packaging of the high-grade, high-purity uranium concentrate commonly referred to as "yellowcake." Coupled with the hazards and control of dust generation incident to conventional crushing and milling operations, more stringent control of airborne respirable and ingestible radioactive particulates and the protection of personnel against definitive external radiation are inherent to uranium milling. Impoundment and control of tailings and other effluents of uranium milling are more restrictive than in conventional practice, be- cause long-term disposal and containment of the uranium series of radionuclides, whether in solution or in solid form, are requisite to uranium milling and are made manadatory under regulatory agencies of government. 2. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY OF URANIUM Early Uses and Byproduct Production of Uranium Uranium was discovered by Klaproth in 1789 but had little commercial importance until the discovery of uranium fission by Hahn and Strassman at the close of 1938. The well-known uranium ores of Joachimsthal, Czechoslovakia, the Congo, and the Colorado Plateau were early sources of radium. Minor quantities of uranium were used for small-scale technical and industrial applications, particularly in coloring glass and ceramics, but most of the uranium was discarded. The Colorado ores were also mined later, chiefly for vanadium. Impetus of Armament Capability and Fuel Demands for Atomic Power Following the discovery of atomic fission, uranium became critically important for military applications and, more recently, as a nuclear fuel. Prior to 1966 uranium was acquired in the United States almost solely for use in the weapons program of the AEC. By 1970 the AEC had procured approximately 325,000 st of U3O8 from domestic and foreign sources. Current and future marketability is primarily dependent upon commercial demand for reactor fuel. Estimates of

Jan 1, 1985

By J. A. C. Fortescue

"Reconnaissance geochemical mapping, based on the chemical analysis of waters, stream, and / or lake sediments had its origin in geochemical prospecting surveys carried out in New Brunswick during the 1950s. More recently, reconnaissance geochemical surveys carried out by government agencies for mineral resource appraisal purposes have been seen as a special case of regional geochemical mapping which is carried out with the aim of describing geochemical patterns f or elements which may he interpreted for mineral resource appraisal, environmental or geological purposes. The interpretation of pal/ ems on regional geochemical maps is based on the concepts of landscape geochemistry, in this paper, the regional approach 10 geochemical mapping is described with reference to an experimental regional geochemical survey which was completed in southwest Ontario during 1981-82. II is concluded, on the basis of data pal/ems for one element only (i.e. arsenic), that the new approach has much potential for solving modern problems in geoscience.""If things don 'I alter they will stay as they are... An old adage.IntroductionDuring the past hundred years topographic, geological, and geophysical maps have been made for all, or nearly all, of Ontario. During the past thirty years these maps have become related as components of what is now called geoscience. Geoscience maps at the regional (i .e. 1 :250,000) scale are often used together to solve general problems in earth science especially in relation to prospecting, or mineral re source appraisal."

Jan 1, 1986

The quiet banks of the Maumee River in Toledo, Ohio, received a wake-up call July 16 as two smokestacks in the Marina District were leveled with dynamite. B&B Wrecking, Inc. of Cleveland contracted the project with the city to bring down the twin stacks, both measuring over 250 feet tall. The structures were part of the Toledo Edison Steam Plant and were erected nearly a hundred years ago. A week’s worth of preparation went into final planning, drilling and loading holes with over 80 pounds of explosives. The felling went precisely as planned as onlookers cheered as the stacks were reduced to rubble.

Jan 1, 2015

By Brett P. Spigarelli

To meet the growing need for CO2 capture and storage technology, Michigan Technological University is researching CO2 capture and storage using alkali solutions1. Without implementing emission controls, world energy emissions will rise from 29.7 billion t in 2007 to 42.4 billion t in 2035. The first objective of the project was to determine the optimal amount of alkali in solution for CO2 absorption. This was accomplished using theoretical equilibrium calculations and experimental absorption data for alkali solutions of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 weight %. As the % alkali in solution increased, so, too, did the ionic strength of the solution. Theoretical calculations took into account the effect increasing ionic strength will have on the solubility of gaseous CO2. The calculations assumed negligible formation of H2CO3, constant temperature and constant pressure. In the experimental setup, a 16% CO2 /balance air gas mixture was bubbled through an Erlenmeyer flask filled with an alkali solution. The gas exiting the flask was fed to a gas analyzer to record the % CO2 in the exhaust gas stream. The % CO2 absorbed was taken as the % CO2 in the exhaust gas minus the % CO2 in the feed. Theoretical calculations found that as the % alkali in solution increases, the solubility of CO2 decreases. This was verified by experimental data, which found that a 2% alkali solution, by weight, was the ideal solution for CO2 absorption. Current research is focused on using the 2% alkali solution for permanent storage of CO2 via mineral carbonation to produce a value-added product.

May 1, 2012

By Wilbur T. Stuart

TO assist the mining industry in attacking problems of water control, the U. S. Geological Survey has begun a program of research in mining hydrology. In certain fundamental respects water control is similar to development of water supplies from wells or to the drainage of agricultural lands, as many of the tools developed in recent years for quantitative ground-water problems are applicable, with modification, to mine-water problems. In 1952 a 30-day pumping test conducted jointly by the Eureka Corp. Ltd. and the Defense Minerals Exploration Agency provided an opportunity to gain knowledge concerning water movements around a flooded mine shaft. The methods of analyzing the data may be used as a guide for the evaluation of similar problems elsewhere. The Fad shaft of the Eureka Corp. is on Ruby Hill, 1 1/2 miles west of Eureka, Nev. The shaft was completed at a depth of 2465 ft in November 1947 at a site adjacent to the downfaulted block in which the ore was found. As the drift on the 2250 level progressed toward the ore zone, a large flow of water was encountered after the Martin fault was intersected. This flow exceeded the installed pump capacity, and an unsuccessful attempt to recover the shaft and the 2250 level was made in 1948.1, 2 Geology and Hydrology: The complex structure of Ruby Hill is that of an anticline broken first by thrust faulting and later by normal faults. The present orebody comprises several mineralized zones within a block of the Eldorado limestone of middle Cambrian age which was downfaulted 1400 to 1600 ft, and it may be related to a similar body mined at a higher level south of the Ruby Hill fault. At the depth of the largest zone of ore the block is roughly rectangular in shape, about 1000 ft wide and 1500 ft long, and dips about 30" NE, see Fig. 1. It is apparently bounded on the south by the Ruby Hill fault, on the east by the Jackson fault, on the north by the Martin fault, and the west by the Bowman fault. Within the block, but between the Ruby Hill and the Martin faults, are the Office and Adams Hills faults; west of the block and the Bowman fault are the Albion and Spring Valley faults. There are many conflicting reports concerning the water-yielding characteristics of the Eldorado limestone and the condition of the fault zones, that is, whether they are open or tight. However, the diamond-drill records indicate that open spaces as much as 2 or 3 ft across were encountered, and considerable cementing and lining of holes was necessary to maintain circulation of drilling fluid. There is also evidence that the Eldorado limestone was cavernous where it was mined in the early days south of the Ruby Hill fault. At the site of the Fad shaft the formations encountered from the surface down included the Pogonip limestone, Dunderberg shale, Hamburg limestone, and Secret Canyon shale. These formations did not yield large quantities of water to the shaft. The Pogonip limestone, which appears to be permeable and might yield water elsewhere, is above the water table in the vicinity of the shaft. The Secret Canyon shale, immediately overlying the Eldorado in some places but in most places separated from it by the Geddes limestone,3 is apparently tight and does not transmit water. During the 30-day test period the shale briefly confined the water in the underlying formations so that artesian conditions were observed in drillholes E and F, which are cased into the Eldorado limestone, whereas unconfined conditions were observed in drillholes B, C, and D, which were open to the shale. The Geddes limestone, which normally lies between the Secret Canyon shale and the Eldorado limestone, was not encountered in the Fad shaft. The Geddes, a flaggy, fractured limestone, is reported capable of yielding large volumes of water. Water stored in the interstices of this thin-bedded limestone within the Ruby Hill fault zone on the 1200 level of the Locan shaft drowned the pumps in 1923 when the Richmond-Eureka Mining Co. attempted to explore the area along the fault. Eldorado limestone was not encountered in the Fad shaft. In the ore-block area the Eldorado limestone was not entirely offset from other water-yielding formations by movement along the Bowman fault; therefore it may be hydraulically connected with the other formations. Adjacent to the Ruby Hill, Jackson, and Martin faults, the Eldorado lies in contact with other possible water-yielding formations. One of these, the Prospect Mountain quartzite, is separated from the Eldorado by thin, sheared, and broken beds of the Geddes within the Ruby Hill fault zone. A limited examination by the author of the Prospect Mountain quartzite in the Richmond mine at a higher level and south of the Ruby Hill fault indicates that the quartzite is poorly permeable. The monzonite mass south of the quartzite would be a further barrier to the flow of water. The poor permeability of this area is substantiated by records of levels at which water was encountered south of the Ruby Hill fault. In view of the normally low rate of ground-water recharge, if this desert area had been permeable, water levels could not have been maintained at altitudes of many hundred feet above the present water table west and north of Ruby Hill. Thus the ore-bearing block of Eldorado limestone is in contact with possible water-yielding rocks on at least two sides, and if the fault zones are possible conduits for water circulation the geologic and hydrologic conditions are suitable for the infinite-aquifer type of analysis as used and modified here. History of Pumping: During sinking of the Fad shaft a maximum pumping rate of 1500 gpm kept the shaft dewatered sufficiently, but in March 1948, after the 2250 level drift passed through the Martin fault into the Eldorado limestone, the pumps and shaft were flooded. Subsequently additional pump-

Jan 1, 1956

By S. Jeffress Williams

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), over the past three decades, has carried out a spectrum of geologic surveys and research in marine areas of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around the U.S. and its territories as well as in the Great Lakes region. Regional and topical studies have been undertaken throughout the range of marine environments: estuarine, tidal wetlands, coastal and nearshore, shelf, slope, and the deep ocean basins. The Survey's coastal and marine research programs consist of four elements shown in Table 1. The first includes studies using interpretations of bathymetry, seismic-reflection and sidescan sonar data, and analyses of sediment grab samples and cores to develop an understanding of the geologic framework. Information on the geologic setting, including the subbottom structure and stratigraphic relationships, and the geologic history and evolution of the areas surveyed are important parts of the program objectives.

Jan 1, 1992

By W. R. Reed, Y. Zheng

A recent study conducted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) evaluated the roof bolter canopy air curtain (CAC) systemin a blowing face ventilation system, demonstrating its effectiveness and illustrating the CAC protection zones. This study evaluates the roof bolter machine CAC while operating in an exhausting face ventilation system. This study considers two similar locations to allow comparison with the previous blowing face ventilation (Zheng et al., Min Metal Explor 36(6):1115–1126, (2019)) study: (1) a roof bolter machine bolting the roof at 20 ft (6.1 m) from the face and (2) a roof bolting machine bolting at 4 ft (1.2 m) from the face. The environment introduces 6.0 mg/m3 of respirable dust to represent the roof boltingmachine operating downstreamof the continuous miner. However, the exhausting face ventilation uses an exhaust curtain with 9000 cfm (4.25 m3/s) of air. Two roof bolter machine working positions are simulated with the use of dual drill heads in the inward position for two inside bolts and in the outward position for two outside bolts. The influence of the CAC on airflows and dust dispersion is evaluated with the CAC operating at 250 cfm (0.12 m3/s) with dust reductions ranging from 39.5 to 82.8%. When the roof bolter machine operated close to the face, increasing CAC airflow was required for adequate protection since the dust reductions can be as low as 39.5%. Additional CAC airflows of 350 cfm(0.17 m3/s) and 450 cfm(0.21 m3/s) were evaluated and demonstrated that dust reductions increased to 59.7% (350 cfm) and 72.0% (450 cfm) for the worst location where the roof bolter operators located.

Aug 26, 2020

By Melvin D. Nelson

Executive Summary The future of coal as an important energy source in the 21st century will depend heavily on whether or not our industry is recognized for its performance. We have had a major role in powering our nation through the 20th century ... but many today do not understand that role nor do they know that 56% of our nation's electricity today comes from coal. Corporate communications, marketing, and public relations must be a high priority of our industry if we are to survive in the society of the 21st century as a viable energy option for powering our nation. The time to start is now. The place to start is locally. The way to strengthen local and regional efforts is to network on a regional and national level with associations who have the ability and the will to develop effective communications strategies. Introduction The Minnkota Power Systems is a regional association of 26 electrical suppliers. Serving more than 96,000 customers in a 34,500 square mile service area in Minnesota and North Dakota, the association includes 12 municipal utilities, 12 distribution cooperatives, a municipal power agency, and a generation and transmission cooperative. The Minnkota Power Systems generating capacity totals 613 megawatts, and 83% of it is fired by lignite coal. On an annual basis, 80% of our total energy is derived from coal. We are proud of our long association with the coal industry. Our pride shows in the very visible role that coal plays in our marketing and public relations efforts. In 1993, the Minnkota Power Systems had one of the lowest wholesale rates in the country, at 3.1 cents per kWh. Average residential rates were 5.8 cents per kWh. Minnkota Power Cooperative, One of the Minnkota Power Systems, is a generation and transmission cooperative headquartered in Grand Forks, North Dakota. Minnkota's Strategic Plan - Shaping the Future Minnkota recently completed a strategic planning process which is intended to give direction to our future and allow us to proactively influence the shape of that future. Minnkota's mission is to assist the associated systems in Improving the quality of life of their consumers by continuously improving the value of electric energy to the consumer. Our business focus is creating and keeping satisfied, long-term energy customers.

Jan 1, 1994

By A. B. Bowman

The 1963 Jackling Award lecturer describes the founding of Banner Mining Co. and its trials and tribulations before becoming an established firm. Such aspects as geological description of Banner mining areas, history of exploration and production, areas of present interest to the company and research work conducted by the company are included. Several years ago a wealthy Chinese business friend of mine purchased an interest in a proposed oil well to be drilled a great distance from his home. A few months later it came in as a producer and proved to be a huge success and materially added to his resources. I asked him why a man of his wealth should be so lucky in a venture outside his sphere of knowledge when most people of modest means never seemed to get ahead. His answer was, "Fat Hoy takes a chance." Even though this was his answer, I knew from my association with him that there were other tempering considerations which Mr. Hoy applied before making up his mind to enter any transaction. First, he was a cautious individual. He was also a great believer in details and insisted on knowing everything possible about a situation, and finally, he was what we call a very solid individual with good basic instincts and judgment. This philosophy of Mr. Hoy may be applied to most any business but especially to those engaged in a search for natural resources such as mining where great risks are involved. This article concerns events in the history and growth of Banner Mining Co., with which I have been associated for 27 years in capacities from mine surveyor to vice president. Mr. Hoy's philosophy has played a significant role in the exploration projects of this company over the years, but what is more important, the officers, directors, and controlling interests in Banner have been aggressive in their search for ore reserves. THE BIRTH OF BANNER Banner Mining Company was incorporated in September 1935 by a group of Oklahoma and Texas oil men for the purpose of exploring and developing the Bonney-Manilla mines at Lordsburg, N.M. These properties had a history of intermittent production since the first ore discoveries as far back as 1870. Most of the production from the district has come from four mines, namely, the Eighty-Five, the Atwood, the Bonney-Manilla, and the Misers Chest. The last two are now owned by Banner Mining. The Eighty-Five mine operated between 1885 and 1931, and production totalled 1,494,287 tons averaging 0.11 oz of gold per ton, 1.23 oz of silver per ton, and 2.80% copper. The vein extended for a distance of about 3000 ft northeast and was mined to a depth of 1650 ft. The Atwood mine, adjoining the Eighty-Five mine, to date has been of lesser importance as a producer, but it has been operating for several years producing high silica flux ores for a smelter. Production totalled 352,828 tons up to January 1, 1962 From the Bonney-Manilla and Misers Chest mines, owned by Banner, production through 1961 totalled 2,006,343 tons with an average grade as mined of 0.0192 oz of gold per ton, 0.760 oz of silver per ton and 2.63% copper. Banner built a 150-tpd flotation mill in 1936 after almost a year of development on the 600 level of the Bonney mine. After less than one year's operation, it became apparent that the 150-tpd rate was not sufficient to make a reasonable profit due to the marginal grade ores. The low tenor of the ore, mainly chalco-pyrite in a highly siliceous gangue, made mandatory the close control of costs in order to make ends meet. A 300-tpd unit was added to the mill in 1937, and it is still the operating unit today. The clean sulfides presented no problems in milling. A metallurgist doing research on it at the time stated that the copper minerals seemed to have a built-in desire to float. Mill recovery of copper throughout the 27 years of operation has averaged 96.23%. A PERIOD OF FORCED GROWTH World War II brought many hardships to Banner. Labor and supply shortages caused drastic curtailment in development work. Rapidly rising costs far outdistanced any relief from pegged prices which we received from Government agencies. Finally, a branch of the Government asked us to stop all devel-

Jan 1, 1963

By John C. Martin

The discovery of a new gas reservoir demands that the planning of a sottnd well-spacing program be initiated early in the development stage. It is the purpose of this discussion to illustrate by actual field examples the application of basic well-spacing principles, previously developed for oil reservoirs, to the problem of well spacing in natural gas fields. These studies are presented for the field use of geologists and engineers who are concerned with the initial planning of the proper development of the newly discovered gas reservoir. INTRODUCTION The phenomenal growth of a vigorous natural gas industry emphasizes the increasing importance of natural gas as a source of energy, fuel, and raw materials to our nation's economy. Since 1945 marketed production of natural gas for the U. S. has increased 21/2 times to a record high of 10.6 trillion cu ft during 1957. As major participants in the gas industry, we share an added interest to develop and produce our natural gas reserves with constantly improved efficiency. The subject of well spacing is vitally important to the gas industry, for the well itself plays a significant role in the development of the natural gas reservoir and in control of the recovery process. Maximum utilization of wells is an integral part of sound conservation practices. The discovery of a new gas reservoir demands that careful choice of well location and well spacing be made and that the planning of a sound well spacing program be initiated early an the development stage. With the drilling of the first development well, efforts of the geologist and engineer must be directed toward acquisition of adequate technical evidence upon which a firm recommendation for a spacing program may be based. With this technical appraisal as a foundation, operators and state regulatory agencies jointly can go far in providing a framework for sound development of gas fields to achieve a program of conservation that avoids the unnecessary well. WELL-SPACING CONCEPTS Through laboratory and field investigations of the mechanism of the recovery of oil and gas, of fluid behavior, and of effective control of reservoir and well, a crystallization of ideas regarding reservoir behavior has emerged as a well-developed technology. Associated with a better understanding of the fundamental principles underlying reservoir and well behavior has been the growth of concepts concerning the role of wells and their spacing in the development and operation of an oil or gas reservoir. In addition to serving as outlets for the withdrawal of fluids from the reservoir, wells are recognized as having two other important functions: (1) providing access to the reservoir to obtain information concerning the characteristics of the reservoir and its fluids, and (2) serving as a means by which the natural or induced recovery mechanism may be effectively controlled. Beyond a minimum number of wells required to fulfill these two functions, additional wells will not increase recovery. With particular emphasis upon well spacing in oil reservoirs, many studies of the well spacing-recovery relationship have evolved the concept that the ultimate oil recovery is essentially independent of the well spacing.' These fundamental concepts are no different when regarding the role of wells and their spacing in the natural gas reservoir. They are equally applicable to the consideration of well spacing in gas reservoirs. For the gas reservoir, the problem of well spacing then revolves around the question of drainage and the degree or extent to which a well may drain gas from its surrounding reservoir environment. Theoretical and Experimental Work During the past 30 years, theoretical and experimental work carried on to study the physical principles involved in the flow of fluids through porous media has shed light upon the matter of drainage. Fundamental mathematical equations have been derived to describe the mechanism of flow of oil and gas through porous rocks. With the recent advent of high-speed digital computers, attempts have been made with mounting success to develop solutions, employing numerical techniques, to mathematical expressions that describe more rigorously the physical behavior and mechanism involved in the unsteady-state flow of compressible fluids, such as a gas, through porous rock. In 1953, Bruce, Peace-man, Rachford and Ricez published a stable numerical procedure for solving the equation for production of gas at constant rate. The results of these calculations are significant with respect to this matter of drainage, for they indicated (1) that depletion of the gas reservoir resulted in a drop in pressure at the extremity of the

By Renee Grogan

"An environmental impact assessment (EIA) of a deep sea mining project typically describes the environmental baseline, impacts of the project to the environmental values, and proposed management techniques. Comprehensive EIAs also consider the impact of the mining project on existing industries, including deep sea fishing. However, few projects to date have included other industries in the EIA process in more than a cursory manner, due to the confidentiality of the process, conflicting priorities, and bureaucratic limitation. However, if the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (particularly Goal 17: Collaboration) are to be achieved, a new way of thinking will be necessary for deep sea mining projects, starting with collaboration at the very beginning of the project life cycle.STRUCTURE OF PRESENTATIONThis presentation will be in the format of an oral (20 minute presentation).The presentation will cover the process of inter-industry collaboration throughout the life cycle of a deep sea mining project, drawing on historical and existing examples, including that of the Chatham Rock Phosphate Project in New Zealand."

Jan 1, 2017

By Milton Lissberger

MILTON L. LISSBERGER, ? New York, N. Y.-Solder is a mechanical mixture of tin and lead, a fact which is susceptible of very simple demonstration. A bar of solder of a grade even as low as 30 per cent. tin and 70 per cent. lead, passed through a buffing machine, will show a surface practically identical with that of a bar of second-quality or reclaimed tin. The buffings, on chemical analysis, will prove to be almost pure lead. According to the best practice, solder is made in the following manner. Virgin pig lead is first melted, and when it is thoroughly liquefied, virgin pig tin is added, together with a small amount of flux; the latter is for the purpose of bringing to the surface the so-called "liver," consisting of impurities that may have remained in either the lead or the tin as a result of incomplete refining. The combined material, when completely liquid, is thoroughly stirred for some hours, and is then cast into small pigs. Just before casting, and continuously during this operation, the molten metal yields dross, consisting largely of the oxides of lead and tin; this should be carefully skimmed off. After the pigs have cooled, they are taken to a smaller kettle, remelted, and cast into the desired shape for use; or if wires, ribbons, etc., are to be made, the solder is cast into slugs suitable for extrusion and rolling. During this second operation, the skimming of dross should be even more carefully done than at first. Hand mixing has proved to be the only reliable method for the production of the best quality of solder, irrespective of its percentages of lead and tin. The best quality of solder is not necessarily that which contains the highest percentage of tin, but rather is that composition which performs best on the required piece of work. In order to produce

Jan 12, 1918

By N. S. Tanious

Retrievability of emplaced nuclear waste from the geologic repository is a performance objective imposed by Federal Regulations. This requirement is designed to provide confidence in the Department of Energy's repository design by keeping the option of retrieval open if the engineered or natural systems prove inadequate for containment and long-term isolation of high-level nuclear waste. This paper presents a summary of current Nuclear Regulatory Commission Staff thinking on the design of the repository for retrieval, and level of retrievability demonstration that may be required during site characterization. However, this paper does not represent official U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission position on this topic.

Jan 1, 1989

By M. SIDDARAJU, Rameshwar Sah, T. Umadevi, K. S. SRIDHARA, B. D. Ganesh Shetty, M. RAJU

The production of high strength iron ore sinter for blast furnace iron making unit was developed by optimizing the granulometry of less than − 0.150 mm fines in sinter base mix which consists of iron ore fines (− 10 mm size with 0.150 mm: 41%), beneficiation plant jig concentrate, i.e., washed ore (− 3 + 0.150 mm size with − 0.150 mm 3 to 9%), beneficiation plant concentrate (− 0.150 mm size 97%), limestone, dolomite, coke breeze, lime, sinter return fines, direct reduced iron (DRI plant) fines, and micropellets produced from steel plant waste. The sintering process consists of preparation of base mix, mixing, and production of nodules using mixing and nodulizing drum by maintaining the optimum moisture, transferring of nodules to the sintering machine, and firing of sinter by applying optimum suction pressure. To optimize the < 0.150 mm fines in sinter base mix, the − 10-mm size iron ore fines was replaced with washed ore. The size analysis, granulation index (G index), and optimization of moisture w.r.t. sinter bed permeability were carried out by varying the washed ore addition from 0 to 55% in sinter base mix to vary the − 0.150 mm fine size. With decrease in washed ore addition from 55 to 0% in sinter base mix the finer fraction, i.e., − 0.150 mm in sinter base mix increased from 9.4 to 26.7%. Granulation (G) index increased from 1.46 to 3.10, sinter bed permeability increased from 33 to 53 Japanese Permeability Unit (JPU), and balling index increased from 1.4 to 3.0. With increase in − 0.150 mm fines in the sinter base mix from 9.4 to 26.7%, the sinter tumbler index (T.I) increased and sinter reduction degradation index (RDI) decreased. Increase in sinter strength and decrease in sinter RDI was due to increase in formation of Silico ferrite of calcium and aluminium (SFCA) phase and decrease in pore phase. The SFCA is the main bonding phase in iron ore sinter, and it provides strength to sinter. Sinter base mix with − 0.150 mm fines 18.9% (washed ore addition 25%) achieved desired sinter properties with moisture 8.0%, G index 2.44, balling index 2.3, and sinter bed permeability > 45JPU. Decreased the sinter properties with washed ore addition in sinter base mix beyond 25% due to decrease in − 0.150 mm fines in sinter base mix. Further, to improve the sinter properties with washed ore 30 to 45%, 3 to 10% beneficiation plant concentrate, i.e., − 0.150 mm fines was added to maintain the 18.9% of − 0.150 mm fines in sinter base mix. From the laboratory sintering studies, it was found that minimum 18.9% (range from 18.9 to 26.7%) − 0.150 mm fines should be maintained in the sinter base mix to achieve desired sinter properties.

Oct 16, 2021

By F. J. Alcock

IN the summer of 1934, gold was discovered on Lodge bay, on the north shore of lake Athabaska in northern Saskatchewan, about fifty miles east of the Alberta boundary line. The first claims were taken up by the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada, Limited, and there was a &apos;rush&apos; to locate similar showings. Staking continued through the summer and succeeding winter, and in the spring of 1935 the provincial government established a recording office at a convenient point which is central to the more important holdings and where &apos;planes can land in any weather. During the past summer, the name of this townsite was changed from Beaverlodge to Goldfields, and a post office was established here. The season was one of great activity; a great deal of assessment and development work was carried out and a large amount of further prospecting done. In addition to the work by private companies, geological investigation was carried out in the region by a Federal Geological Survey party under the charge of the writer and a reconnaissance examination was made of an area of some 7,000 square miles surrounding the region of particular interest. Though this was the first discovery of gold in the region it was not the first occasion that prospecting had been carried out along the north side of lake Athabaska. Over twenty years ago, a number of prospectors were at work in the area and a large number of claims were staked, many of which were never recorded. One man by the name of Piché, in the years 1910, 1912, and 1913, took up a considerable number of claims north of Pine Channel narrows, east of Fond du Lac. His discoveries, which consisted of small showings of sulphides in sedimentary gneiss, proved to be of no economic importance. In 1915, a sudden widespread interest was aroused by the report that a sample of ore collected near Fond du Lac had yielded a very high assay in silver. In March and April of that year, prospectors began to rush into the field by dog teams to take up claims, and, as soon as the Athabaska river was free of ice, others started by boat from Athabaska Landing. Some hundreds of claims were staked and recorded in the Dominion Land Office at Edmonton or at Fort Smith. By July, most of the prospectors had? left the region, having failed to find any silver ore. In 1921, considerable prominence was given to the area a few miles east of Goldfields by reports that very large masses of iron ore were available there. Claims were taken up, but the material is much too low grade to be considered commercial ore.

Jan 1, 1936

By J. E. Danoczi

Shore Gold Inc. (Shore) is presently designing a diamond processing plant for the Star and the Orion South kimberlite deposits in the Fort à la Corne (FalC) area in central Saskatchewan. The first step in the plant is diamond liberation and occurs in the comminution section. Diamond liberation is the process of breaking up the kimberlite rock, as gently as possible so as not to damage the diamonds. Autogenous grinding mills (AG mills) use a combination of impact crushing, abrasion and attrition to break up the kimberlite. The forces that occur during the actions of abrasion and attrition cause the kimberlites to break up preferentially along lines of weaknesses which offers a ?diamond friendly? method of comminution. Hard competent kimberlite is commonly found in the diatreme zone as well as the root zone of the volcanic pipe and is the source of kimberlite for most of the Southern African diamond mines. Softer kimberlite is typically found in and around the crater area of a volcanic pipe and it is this kimberlite that makes up the majority of kimberlite for both the Star and Orion South deposits. These softer kimberlites can be readily broken up using abrasion and attrition imparted by AG mills. In order for Shore to benefit from the softer kimberlite found in the Star - Orion South diamond project, two large (10.97 m diameter x 7.10 m long) AG mills were designed for the comminution section based on extensive test work and simulations by Metso Minerals (Metso).

Jan 1, 2012

By H Rossiter, A Maddever, J Market, P Jeanneau, A Virani

It is generally acknowledged that the head grade of the world’s copper resources is declining. Accordingly, there is an increase in the volume of resource material being mined and processed to maintain copper production. This has led to increases in cost base accompanied by reductions in Life of Mine (LOM) Net Present Value (NPV). The higher tonnages of material mined are driven by increased quantities of lower grade material required to satisfy the short term mine model. In turn, this has brought an increased focus on sampling and assay methods, since any error associated with estimating the grade of each block and determining its correct destination serves to magnify the losses that will occur. Presently most open-pit copper mining operations use blasthole sample assays to feed their shortterm model. The problematic nature of blasthole sampling is well documented (Engström, 2017), particularly the poor timeliness of the data and the significant errors that are inherent to the technique. Methods to improve grade control, such as drilling a separate grade control grid, have been proposed but come with their own cost, logistical, and accuracy shortcomings. A recent development in grade estimation is the Pulsed Fast and Thermal Neutron Activation (PFTNA) downhole logging probe. Deployed on an efficient semi-autonomous platform, PFTNA is being aggressively adopted in the Australian iron ore industry. The technology provides in-situ elemental analysis of the geological formation, delivering high accuracy, high efficiency, near realtime data from a sizeable measurement volume. In this paper we consider the application of the technology to copper. Whilst there are several operational components to such a value proposition, we focus on the benefits of improved gradeestimation. A simulated copper mine is used to model the quantum of improvement expected from a reduced grade-estimation error, which reduces the likelihood of misallocating material to the wrong destination, which in turn increases NPV.

Nov 10, 2020

By W. W. Cummings

Canada&apos;s only current tungsten producer started up in 1962 with a small open-pit mine on the Flat River , 180 air miles north of Watson Lake, Yukon Territory. The orebody was in a contact-metamorphic skarn zone and contained about 1.5 million tons of ore grading an estimated 2.47% W03 and 0.5% copper. Near the end of the open pit , a new zone was discovered on the lower limb of the same structure, and the decision to go underground was made in 1972. The new "E Zone" contains over 4 million tons of ore grading an estimated 1.6% W03 and 0.28% Cu , and has been supplying the concentrator at about 175,0 00 tons/ year since late 1974. A continuing program of change and up-grading is necessary in the conversion from a seasonal open-pit mine with limited life to an underground operation with twenty years of reserves. Changes are necessary in plant and services as well as the mine. Also, environmental protection requirements have changed from rudimentary to rigorous over the life of the operation. This paper sums up the changes in the operation since 1971 and outlines the changes yet to come.

Jan 1, 1977