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By YUSONG MIAO, DI WU, XIANRONG YAN, YIPING ZHANG, JIE LIN, KEBIN LI

Rock fragmentation has been a concern in hard-rock mining for the mining industry. Rock fragmentation distribution is an important index to measure the blasting effect. It not only affects the cost of drilling and blasting, but also affects the efficiency of subsequent operations, such as loading, transportation and secondary crushing.

By George Breyer

DURING the past 25 years the steelmaker has experienced some difficulty in producing steel to meet the standards established by the metallurgist. In contrast to the past, when a chemical specification of broad limits was the only requirement, he now has to employ such tests as microscopic, macroscopic, tensile, impact, Magnaflux and even X-ray and supersonic. The development of these tests has more than set the pace for a manufacturing process of which the exactness still hinges to an important degree on the ability of the furnace operator. In our efforts to produce steel, and especially alloy steel, to meet the exactness of modern engineering specification, many factors must be taken into account. It is not sufficient to make a good heat of steel in the furnace and then be satisfied that the job is done, since there are many pitfalls between the furnace and the finished product. The literature abounds with information on melting practices, deoxidation methods and slag control, but the lack of positive information about what happens when the steel is teemed into molds is quite evident. Such questions as what is the proper mold size, shape and thickness; which is the best mold coating; what is the best rate of pour for any given steel, and what is the effect of cooling rates on quality, are still answered by opinions. It is acknowledged that a poor heat of steel cannot be improved in the pouring pit. On the other hand, a good heat can be ruined by improper handling after it leaves the furnace.

Jan 1, 1947

By Roy L. Zuber

Identification and analysis of mining hazards involves the correlation of accident, injury and illness information from all segments of the mining industry. It would not be feasible to process the volume of data involved without substantial reliance upon a computerized information system similar to that maintained by the Health and Safety Analysis Center. Numerous statistical programs are applied to the computerized accident-injury-illness data base to identify those mining tasks and associated activities which are responsible for most of the injuries and occupational illnesses. These programs are used to flag those mining tasks or conditions at specific mines or segments of the mining industry where either a significant increase in the injury/illness trend has been reported or where the number of injuries/illnesses related to specific mining tasks or conditions are high. Upon identification of those mining hazards which warrant further analysis, a computerized search of the coded accident data is performed to correlate the predominant categories by cause of injury or illness, source of injury, nature of injury, type of accident, etc. From this correlation, those factors most common to the conditions responsible for the hazard may be identified. Based upon analyses of this form, recommendations are made regarding the appropriate engineering, training, and/or operational improvements necessary to alleviate the hazard. In addition to mining hazard analysis, the computerized data base also has application in the area of optimum resource allocation. Computer programs have been developed to assist management in allocating resources based upon organizational requirements and historical accident - injury trends.

Jan 1, 1983

By T. W. Guy

DURING recent years, tremendous strides have been made in the economical use of coal. This has resulted in, and to some extent has been a result of, making the fuel specifications more and more rigid. For this reason, all producers have found it necessary to improve their preparation materially, both as to sizing and the elimination of impurities, either by more effective preparation underground or at the tipple and cleaning plant, or both. This cause and its effect in all producing fields seem likely to continue for several years-at least. The splendid inherent qualities of the Pocahontas and New River coals are known all over the world, but their good reputation is only partly due to inherent qualities, and to natural conditions which generally favor loading coal comparatively free from impurities; it is due in large measure to the care and skill used, either with or without the aid of mechanical devices, to ship products consistently low in ash. The first coal from the West Virginia smokeless fields was mined and shipped near Quinnimont, on New River, in 1871, while the first shipments from the Pocahontas field were in 1883. The development of both fields progressed rapidly. At first activities followed the main lines of the Chesapeake & Ohio and Norfolk & Western railroads, and were extended later as branch lines were built from these roads. The Virginian R. R., about 1907, opened up the Winding Gulf territory, which has since become a large producer of smokeless coals from the Pocahontas and the New River measures.

Jan 1, 1931

By P. Chris Pistorius

Calcium treatment of alumina inclusions, to convert the alumina to molten or partially molten calcium aluminates, is a well-established treatment for steel, to improve the castability of aluminium-killed steel. However, the role of magnesium in calcium-treated steel is not fully clear, nor is the origin of the several percent of magnesium oxide that is often present in calcium-treated inclusions. To study this, steel was sampled after calcium treatment at an industrial steel plant, and the inclusions identified by energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis (EDX) on polished sections of the samples (analysing the samples in a scanning electron microscope). The predicted fraction liquid in the inclusion was estimated from the ternary alumina-magnesia-lime phase diagram. Inclusions with higher CaO contents generally had lower MgO contents, indicating that the calcium wire is not the origin of the magnesium in the inclusions; this was also confirmed by wet chemical analysis of the calcium wire. Instead, it appears that magnesium-alumina spinel inclusions form during extended ladle contact after aluminium killing and before calcium treatment. While such spinels have been stated to cause poor castability (clogging the submerged-entry nozzle), it is clear that calcium treatment successfully modifies the spinel inclusions to mixed alumina-lime-magnesia inclusions, where the magnesia content contributes substantially to liquefaction of the inclusions: for typical MgO contents of around 10%, the range of Ca:O ratios which yield liquid (or partially liquid) inclusions is extended substantially to lower Ca:O ratios.

Jan 1, 2006

By A. L. Mular

Optimization has been defined as the procedure of locating the best of something or the best way of doing something (Mular, 1971). Several texts (Himmelblau, 1972; Ray and Szekeley, 1973; Box and Draper, 1969; and Lee, Adams, and Gaines, 1968) on the subject are available. Such techniques have been placed in two categories, namely, off-line optimization and on-line optimization. For the former, an optimization model is employed; for the latter, a black box approach is involved. The essence of an optimization problem becomes obvious, when a response surface is considered. Suppose that a response (in this case, a criterion of improvement such as profit per day; grade of concentrate per day) denoted by Y, depends only on two variables, X1 and X2, which can be manipulated and controlled. The relationship between Y, X1 and X2 may be represented graphically as shown in Fig. 1. The diagram is called a response surface and its height, Y, is determined by X1 and X2. Points associated with equal responses constitute response contours. The shape is that of a hill, and optimization is the procedure of ascending the hill to reach the top (maximum). In practice, a response surface is subject to disturbances which distort its shape and shift its location from time to time, so that the exact location of a maximum is imprecise. Generally, constraints (restrictions of some sort) on responses and manipulable variables serve to define a region of permissible operation.

Jan 1, 1979

By R. L. Neman

Southern Oklahoma (including the Arbuckle Mountains) has outcrops of rocks representing Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Cretaceous ages. Thus, rocks of every geologic age in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras, except the Jurassic and Triassic Periods, are present in south-central Oklahoma. With rocks of such an enormous age range present in a relatively small geographic area, it is little wonder that a wide variety of economic rock and mineral resources are locally present. This report will describe the occurrence, mining, processing, and end-uses (dictated by chemical and physical properties) of the Precambrian Troy Granite, the Cambrian Royer Dolomite and Fort Sill Limestone, Ordovician silica sands of the Simpson Group, Ordovician limestones of the Viola Springs and Welling Formations, and Ordovician Sylvan Shale. In general, the more the end-use depends upon chemical composition and purity, the greater the price that can be demanded for such-minerals. The not-so-successful attempts to mine zinc, manganese, copper, and iron from the Arbuckle Mountains also will be discussed briefly, and I will provide a sermonette on analytical chemistry and its usefulness to corporate CEOs. I may be one of the few persons at this Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals who is not a professional geologist. I am an analytical chemist specializing in geochemistry. In particular, I investigate trace elements in rocks and their consequences in industrial processes. As such, I have consulted to the mining industry (and their clients) for two decades, always with the intent of improving service and product quality.

Jan 1, 1999

By Alfred Weiss

When I first received the announcement of this meeting I was pleased to see that this 14th APCOM Symposium had expanded its range of interest. One new topic to be considered this year is long range or strategic planning--the continuous process by which current risk taking decisions are made systematically, and with the greatest knowledge of future impact. Long range planning should receive our attention. It is the first step in the management process and the foundation of many--if not all --key managerial decisions. Improvements made at this stage of managing are almost certain to be of benefit in later stages of decision making. It is obvious to many of us that in a physical process such as mineral beneficiation, one does not concentrate all of one's attention on the flotation design without also considering the grinding, cycloning, and desliming stages of the process. Taking this a step further it would be equally erroneous to find a mineral engineer designing a mill without due consideration for mine, smelter and refinery and beyond that the sales goals, growth and profit objectives of the firm itself. And yet, how many times have we seen organizations staff and reorganize without consideration of an overall plan; without adherence to the management process which by its definition, calls for a plan first, followed by the appropriate organization and staff. The computer applications traditionally discussed at APCOM meetings have concentrated on areas dealing with things and people-- the implementation of the plan, rather than with concepts and ideas, the formulation of the plan.

Jan 1, 1977

By Stanko Nikolic

Ferrous calcium silicate slags are potentially important for future practice in copper converting operations and processes and can be described by the ?Cu2O?-FeO-Fe2O3-CaO-SiO2 system. Despite its industrial importance the phase equilibria in this system have not been fully investigated. Characterization of this slag system is necessary to improve the design and optimization parameters of new processes, including fluxing and operating temperatures. Experimental methods have been developed to investigate the phase equilibria of these slags at copper saturation and without copper. This technique involved equilibration of samples at a fixed oxygen partial pressure, rapid quenching, and analysis of the compositions of phases using electron probe x-ray microanalysis (EPMA). Liquidus and solidus data are reported for the primary phase fields of spinel, wollastonite and tridymite at 1250oC and an oxygen partial pressure of 10-6atm. The resulting data has been used to construct liquidus isotherms in the ?FeO?-CaO-SiO2 system both in equilibrium with and without molten copper. The experimental results were compared with the predictions of a thermodynamic computer package utilizing a self consistent thermodynamic database. The predictions of the model were in good agreement with the experimental isotherms when projected onto the FeO-CaO-SiO2 section, however the copper concentrations in the liquid phase at copper saturation were lower than predicted using the current database of the model.

Jan 1, 2006

By Whittaker B. N, Reddish D. J

This paper presents the physical modelling results of subsurface fracture development associated with Iongwall mining operations and an application of image processing techniques to interpretion of the results. Physical modelling results haióbeen obtained by employing a large sand and plaster model loaded purely by gravity as a means of fracturing the subsurface strata above the longwall excavation. The results have shown fracture development and crack propagation as a longwall face advances and demonstrated that the strength of stratified rocks, the presence and position of a weak band-, and the extraction thickness, have significant effects upon the overall fracture patterns above the excavation. Binary images of fracture patterns were scanned from the black and white photographs of the tested models using an image analyser coupled to a video camels. These images were manipulated by a custom written C program which allows the images to be processed in both vertical and horizontal direction. The images were filtered to quantitatively differentiate between vertical and horizontal fracture intensities. The vertical fracture intensity is particularly important as vertical fractures are considered to provide the main avenues for surface and subsurface water inflow into the excavation. The use of the image analysis techniques has shown a promising improvement in image enhancement and in model results interpretation in a quantitative manner. The numerical nature of the image analysis results will allow further statistical comparison with other modelling techniques to be undertaken and significantly increase the scope for use of the modelling technique results.

Jan 1, 1992

By Gennaro G. Marino

Site conditions at several shallow room and pillar mines in Illinois are described and compared with the charac¬teristics of the subsidence profiles at the ground surface. The shape and magnitude of the subsidence profiles were found to be closely related to the thickness of the soil and rock over-burden the percent extraction of the coal, and the shape of mine pillars. The room and pillar mines were located at a shallow depth (from 112 to 220 ft), beneath flat to gently rolling terrain. Thickness of the coal seams ranged from 5 to 9 ft and at all sites was underlain by underclays. This information has been developed in order to improve techniques for evaluating the subsidence potential at sites within the Illinois coal basin. he results presented form a small portion of the work carried out by the University of Illinois with Illinois Abandoned Mined Lands Councils and the U. S. Bureau of Mines at the Minneapolis Research Center in Minnesota (Marino and Mahar, 1985). Presented in the paper are the modes of mine failures observed for Illinois room and pillar mines, an overall summary of the site geologic and mining condi¬tions, case histories of each mode of failure, a comparison of sag profiles, and then an empirical relationship between the site conditions and the maximum sag subsidence. The most ideal case histories are presented to illustrate fundamental behavior. A brief of the Paper is given in a summary and conclusions section.

Jan 1, 1984

By G. Venturello, C. Antonione, G. Della Gatta

Results from work on the effect of inferstitials on recovery and recrystallization of' very pure iron (99.995 pet) doped with nilrogen up to 400 ppm are reported. Nitrided specimens were obtained by heating the iron in a static atmosphere of NH3 + H2. The samples were cold-rolled 80 pet, subjected to a series of isochronal and isothermal anneals, and submitted to examination by X-rays, micrographs, and hardness tests. Small additions of nitrogen show a strong effect in reducing recovery of' the mechanical properties of high-purity iron. At the temperatures of. the experiments, this effect proved greater than in the case of carbon. At 400°C pure iron recovers more than 50 pet of the total hardness increase, carburized iron vecovers 25 pet, and nitrided iron only 10 pet. On the other hand. the addition of nitrogen has, similarly to carbon, a very small effect on recrystallization; the effect is, however, slightly higher than that of carbon. When the concentration Of nitrogen is above the solubility limit in a iron at the temperattue of the experiments, an increase in the frequency of nu -cleation is also observed. THE object of the present work is to improve knowledge on the effect of interstitials both on recovery and on primary recrystallization of pure iron. In fact. at present there are no available data on the effect of nitrogen on high-purity iron. The only work which at present can be somewhat related to this problem is a work of Leak et al.1 in which grain boundary internal friction at high temperature in the presence of increasing amounts of nitrogen is studied by a torsion pendulum. The present work is a continuation of a previous one2 on the effects of carbon. EXPERIMENTAL PART Preparation of the Material. Pure iron was prepared following the same methods used in the pre- vious work2 and was nitrided using controlled quantities of ammonia in an apparatus similar to that used for carburizing. The apparatus consists essentially of a gas-tight quartz tube containing the specimens. The tube, maintained at constant pressure by means of a mercury seal, is placed in a resistance furnace. For nitriding, the NH3 + H2 atmosphere with a suitable concentration of NH3 was introduced into the tube, which had been previously carefully evacuated and degassed by heating at 600°C. The hydrogen used was carefully purified by passing it through a palladium filter. The ammonia required was prepared with the following reaction: CaO + 2NH4CI —CaCl2 + H2O + 2NH3 by heating the mixture of CaO and NH4C1 in a glass flask and then collecting the ammonia in a graduated Hempel burette. For each nitriding program a given amount of NH3 prepared by this method was introduced together with the H2 into the tube previously evacuated. Nitriding of the sample was then performed at 570°C for 48 hr. After this, to ensure a homogeneous distribution of nitrogen, the samples were further heated for 72 hr at 800°C. With this method which uses a static nitriding atmosphere, carefully controlled conditions of purity are obtained. Contrarily, with the conventional continuous-flow methods, using large quantities of circulating gas, there is a greater risk of introducing impurities into the samples. Furthermore, the required nitrogen concentration in the specimen is easily predetermined and obtained. A plot of the relation observed between the initial concentration of NH3 in the gas and the quantity of nitrogen introduced into the iron samples is given in Fig. 1. The data refer to samples of 1.2-mm thickness and to the nitriding conditions previously described. Furthermore, as a comparison, the data relative to two 0.5-mm-thick samples are reported. The presence of a reservoir in the cold zone of the reaction bulb made possible the gradual dissociation of ammonia on the sample in the hot zone. Internal-friction methods were used to determine the content of nitrogen dissolved in the iron samples. Some analyses were also carried out with chemical methods. The following table, Table I, shows a comparison of data obtained with chemical and internal-friction methods. The correspondence between chemical methods and internal-friction

Jan 1, 1964

By N. Hosking, M. Nichols

Aluminum alloys are increasingly used for automotive body construction but are susceptible to filiform corrosion or paint blistering in service. Filiform corrosion resistance of two 6000-series aluminum alloys was investigated in this work. Test panels were produced with full automotive coating layers and scribed parallel and perpendicular to the rolling direction. The corrosion exposure comprised an inoculation step with acidified salt solution followed by a 6-week exposure period at 95% relative humidity and either 25°C or 70°C. Greatest corrosion activity was measured on the alloy with higher copper content, AA6111. Higher temperature exposure led to greatly enhanced corrosion activity for AA6111 compared to the lower temperature exposure. The 70°C exposure also led to greater mean corrosion-affected area measurements for the low copper aluminum alloy, AA6022, but the effect was not as stark as that observed for AA6111. Rolling direction affected the propagation direction, and possibly mechanism, of the corrosion effects. Cross-sectional analysis revealed dense corrosion products within the filament, comprising mostly aluminum and oxygen but with traces of chloride and sulphate. Development of varying filament and blister types on a single test panel and the progression of corrosion underneath a filament into the substrate indicate that several corrosion mechanisms can develop on the test panel, testament to the complexity of the corroding surface developed on an aluminum automotive body panel.

Jan 1, 2015

By Allan H. Caverson

Over the past nine years a means for measuring the distance between the mine roof and floor has been developed at the White Pine Mine which yields relevant information utilized in the mining operation. The technique known as "convergence!' is an efficient, low cost way for obtaining large quantities of data for predicting roof falls, caving activity, and overall mine stability. From a limited introduction in 1964 related to monitoring an experimental longwall project, the activity of convergence measurements has been expanded to become a production tool now found in all sections of the mine. Presently, the program involves four main types of activity: 1. Monthly measurements in areas known to be active, and in sample blocks scattered throughout the mine for a long-term stability study. 2. Semi-monthly measurements along vital travel roads, belt drifts and compressor sites. 3. Weekly measurements in areas where men are working. 4. Daily measurements in pillar-recovery and caving operations. Today, one field engineer and six technicians are involved full time in convergence work. Rock Mechanics technicians have installed approximately five thousand stations since the start of the program and of this number, over twenty-five hundred active stations still comprise the mine-wide network spread over the more than five square mile extent of the White Pine Mine workings.

Jan 1, 1973

By D. Hulse

"The science of “optimal economic pit design” has been highly refined in the last decades. Even with the proliferation of optimizing and heuristic algorithms exploiting ever faster computers, the most common input is a single block model and a single set of cost assumptions, each of which is an estimate and prone to errors. An analysis of price assumptions produces a suite of nested economic shells, each with its own quantities of ore, waste, grade, and profit, but due to irregularities in the mineralized body, the growth of these shells can be erratic. To control the impact of the errors of the model and cost assumptions when choosing the pit shell for design, graphs of pit shells characteristics, such as stripping ratio, cost per unit of product and profit/ton, can be analyzed to consider points with higher stability, or robust pits. Selection of robust shells for a pit limit and for push backs can help to understand the impact to profit and risk. The robust shells also guide the preferred solution sets for final pit and cutoff optimization. INTRODUCTION “An open pit mining operation can be viewed as a process by which the open surface of a mine is continuously deformed. The planning of a mining program involves the design of the final shape of this open surface.” Optimum Design of Open-Pit Mines, Lerchs, H. and Grossmann, I. Transactions C.I.M. Volume LXVIII 1965. Traditionally an analysis of economic pit shells and sensitivity was performed by varying the input metal price. This was done with both floating cone algorithms as well as early versions of the Lerchs-Grossmann (L-G) algorithm. This gave an indication of the pit sensitivity to price but since other variables also change, some with metal price (perhaps steel and equipment), and some independently (fuel and tires) the understanding of these different pits was restricted. In addition, a run of the program could take hours, making a detailed analysis of small changes unwieldy. The L-G algorithm was programmed by a variety of people and sold as part of commercial mining packages, however it was first and most successfully commercialized by Jeff Whittle in 1984. When Whittle’s 3-D™ was expanded to 4-D the parameterization of the economic inputs was considered and the ability to run a suite of “pit shells” became automatic. The competing NPV Scheduler™ program sold by DataMine™ offers similar pit shell analysis capabilities."

Jan 1, 2018

By Thomas J. Crocker, Douglas B. Uthus

Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM) have gained worldwide acceptance in the construction field and are being employed in ever increasing numbers to drive underground transit lines, drainage systems, etc. However, TBM utilization in the mining industry, and more specifically coal mining, has been very limited. This paper reviews past and present applications of TBMs to coal mining and examines the needs of the industry in an attempt to offer some insight as to what a TBM system must provide if the excavation potential demonstrated in civil works projects is to be realized in coal operations. EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE Germany The Germans recognized long ago the potential of mechanized drivage for coal mine entry development. Early in the 1960's experimental runs were made with a full-face Wohlmyer roadheader at the Westerholt Mine and trials were conducted on a roller bit armed full-face Bade roadheader. But because of problems with penetrating the various carboniferous strata occurring in changing sequence and hardness, these first attempts were soon terminated. After viewing later successes in the construction industry with improved TBMs, new attempts were initiated by the German mining industry in 1971 to mechanize drivage of their development entries. Four TBMs of two different types were placed in operation.

Jan 1, 1976

By NILAMADHABA SAHU, Gajanan U. Kapure, Pankaj Kumar, Sunil Kumar Tripathy

Chromite ore processing tailings and low-grade manganese ores are typically considered waste due to their limited or negligible utility, leading to environmental and storage concerns. Researchers globally have explored various methods to utilize or upgrade these wastes, particularly because dumping chromite ore has been linked to severe health issues through Cr(VI) leaching. Individually, these ores lack economic value, and there has not been research on simultaneously reducing both low-grade ores. In this study, the focus lies on smelting these ores together, aiming to create a precursor alloy for 200 series stainless steel scrap. Initial research indicates the potential for scrap formation, validated through laboratory experiments with varying coke rate, basicity and holding time. The investigation discovered that smelting this combination could yield a metal product consisting of 59 percent Fe, 24.93 percent Cr, 7.56 percent Mn, 0.62 percent Ni and 0.93 percent Si. The optimum basicity was found to be 0.6 with 80 percent recovery. Notably, this process eliminates intermediate steps in 200 series stainless steel production, potentially reducing overall carbon dioxide emissions. This proposed method represents a cleaner, sustainable approach to repurpose these two waste ores, projecting a net profit of US$330/t.

May 1, 2024

By G. G. Huggins

A demonstration project has been completed to reduce the operator sound level of an underground service vehicle, a personnel dispatch wagon, to go dB(A) or less. The program objective was to implement quieting recommendations made on an earlier study for the USBM n diesel-powered mine equipment. The manufacturer and mine to which the vehicle was going actively participated in the program to ensure a product that was not only quiet, but useful. The key element of the quieting package is an engine part a1 enclosure, which, with several complementary noise control components, reduced the operator sound level 14 dB, from 101 dB(A) to 87 dB(A). The vehicle underwent a 4-month trial period, with no degradation in the quieting package. Mine personnel reported no maintenance difficulties, and were enthusiastic about the dispatch.

Jan 1, 1975

By Francis G. Stehli

Though sedimentary rocks comprise only about five percent of the volume of the continental crust, they cover about 80% of its surface, serve as important reservoirs for fluids, contain reserves of non-metallic minerals, and have in general been extensively drilled. However, most drilling has been shallow in comparison to the thickness of the crust and such deep drilling as has taken place is very strongly localized in sedimentary basins. This may be seen by reference to Figures 1 and 2 which show the location of wells that drilled deeper than 15,000' [=] 4.6 km. (Figure 1) and those that drilled below 20,000' [=] 6.15 km. (Figure 2). It is apparent that, even in regions of sedimentary cover, direct exploration below six kilometers has been very restricted. In the case of the metamorphic and igneous rocks which make up 95% of the volume of the crust, direct exploration has been much less extensive in terms of both area and depth. The present state of our knowledge of the crust below a' thin surface layer stands in marked contrast to our growing present need for raw materials and the needs of future generations. It also stands in contrast to our need for enhanced, scientific knowledge of the deeper crust, its configuration, its present state, its hydrothermal systems,-its evolution, and its materials. Lessons learned in exploring the third dimension of the sea floor, the vigorous prosecution of seismic profiling, the development of testable models for hydrothermal systems and mineral deposits, the need for better understanding of heat flow, state of stress, earthquake mechanisms, and a host of other phenomena all suggest that it is time to launch a national program for scientific exploration of the crust which uses drilling to test important hypotheses developed on the basis of indirect evidence.

Jan 1, 1985

By George H. K. Schenck

Diminishing returns in management's fight to lower manufacturing expenses have added luster to savings that can be achieved in delivered costs through creative management of the distribution function. This is especially true for companies engaged in the production of bulk commodities, for which transport costs may represent 25 to 50% or more of total delivered price, A. E. Cascino, vice president of International Minerals and Chemical Corporation, recently gave an example of why top management in his firm is concerned with distribution: "The price of a ton of phosphate rock, f.o.b. mine, is about $7. The cost of warehousing, freight, and handling frequently totals an additional $11 . . . . If one of our competitors . . . discovers a way in which he can cut his distribution costs by $3, we're dead! Even if we wanted to offset our competitor's more efficient means of shipping with reduced f.o.b. price for our product-we don't have that much profit margin . . . ." In a special report on the revolution now occurring in transportation of goods, Business Week stated in its September 24 issue: "Moving and storing goods on their way from mine and mill through various sub-assemblies to their final markets costs anywhere from $50 billion to $75 billion a year- $100 billion if paperwork costs are included.

Jan 1, 1967