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By A. E. Cameron

The theory of atomic distribution of the stranger atoms in the space lattice of the solvent metal has been well developed by Rosenhain. It has long been known that the addition of one metal to another to form a solid solution increases the strength and hardness of the solvent metal. This increase is practically proportional to the amount of added substance up to the limit of solid solubility. To account for this increase in hardness and strength, Rosenhain assumes that the stranger atoms occupy positions on the solvent metal space lattice. Atomic attractions about the stranger atoms will not be the same as in the case of the pure metal, and there will thus be a disturbance of the orderly arrangement of the atoms on the space lattice, or a distortion of the lattice. Such a disturbance would interfere with the ease of slip along the planes and would thus tend to promote strength and hardness. Rosenhain notes that not only may there be a local disturbance of the lattice about the stranger atom but there may well be also a measurable change in the dimensions of the lattice as a whole. The relative amounts of local and general distortion of the lattice will depend upon the nature of the lattice itself. As Rosenhain says, "If the lattice is comparatively soft and flexible the distortion is likely to be largely local. In a stiff lattice, however, local distortion will be resisted and there will be a correspondingly increased general distortion."

Jan 1, 1927

By Wilhelm Brandstätter, Johannes Steiner, Alois Triessnig, Christian Redl

"The results of numerical simulations of bubble detachment from an orifice in a horizontal plate submerged in liquid are presented. The bubbles are created by forcing gas through this orifice into stagnant liquid. The simulations are performed with a two-dimensional incompressible Lattice Boltzmann (LB) scheme. In previous works the same problem was investigated by two-phase simulations in which surface tension effects were considered by an interaction potential formulation between the phases. In contrast, in the present work a volume of fluid (VOF) model consisting of a carrier fluid and a passively advected scalar function for the calculation of gravitational and surface tension forces, respectively, is used. The aims of this study are to examine the applicability of the one-phase LB method to the numerical analysis of bubble formation and to verify the theoretical and experimental predictions of the dependencies of the departure diameter on gravitational forces, surface forces and wettability effects. To this purpose the simulations were performed at different values of gravitational acceleration g, surface tension coefficient s and contact angle ß. Nonlinear fits to the data yield functional dependencies which are in good agreement with the predictions. IntroductionBubble formation behavior is an extensively studied subject, especially in chemical engineering, power industries and metallurgical processing. Knowledge of the underlying physics of bubble motion is, for example, required for the design of chemical reaction towers and agitation tanks. Another important application is the argon gas injection through the wall of the tundish nozzle into liquid steel stream to deter clogging with solid inclusions. Argon bubble motion and its effect on flow depends greatly on different parameters, e.g. gas flow rate and size of the bubbles. Thus, if these bubbles are not managed properly, they can become encapsulated upon solidification and result in undesirable impurities in the material [1, 2]."

Jan 1, 2004

By Ryoma Fujiyoshi

In this article, the technologies of highly durable MgO-C bricks for the scrap impact zone and bottom blowing tuyere of converters are demonstrated. On the bases of our recent investigations, wear of scrap impact zone and bottom tuyere are explainable in terms of crack initiation and propagation. Theoretically, crack propagation in brittle material is regarded as generation of new crack surface area. It occurs when the elastic strain energy stored in the material exceeds the energy required to generate a new crack surface area. Since the overall energy consumed for crack propagation until fracture is evaluated by fracture energy, materials exhibiting high fracture energy can be regarded as materials with high fracture resistance. Therefore, two fracture energy-improving technologies for MgO-C bricks were developed. One is matrix reinforcement and the other is carbon bond enhancement. These technologies were applied to bricks for the scrap impact zone and bottom tuyere. As a result of commercial applications, notable decreases in wear rates were recognized for high fracture energy materials for the scrap impact zone and bottom blowing tuyere of converters.

Oct 30, 2017

By Roger Potvin

Abstract The demand for pure zirconium and titanium metals in Germany increased considerably during the war. Pure zirconium was used in flash bulbs, in vacuum tubes, and in time fuses for bombs, where it has a decided advantage because it gives no gas in burning. Under the form of alloy, it was used with other rare elements for making substitutes for platinum; it was also used as a scavenging agent in high-grade steels. Metallic titanium was mainly used in connection with the manufacturing of special alloys. The authors were sent to Germany by the Department of Reconstruction and have investigated the German process developed for producing these rare metals. They describe the procedure and special equipment used for their commercial production in Germany during the war. General Metallic zirconium and titanium were .produced on a commercial scale in Germany by the thermal reduction, with metallic sodium, of potassium fluozirconate and titanium chloride, respectively, using a mixed potassium and sodium chloride flux. According to the information gathered, the sole German producer of these rare metals in pure form was the Deutsche Gold und Silber Scheideanstalt (commonly called Degussa), at their Werk II, 215 Gutleutstrasse, Frankfurt/Main, which was visited by the authors on September 18th, 1945. As far back as 1934, Degussa was carrying on active research on the manufacture of zirconium, and nearly one ton of the pure metal had been produced before September, 1939. Concurrently, a quite similar process was worked out for the recovery of titanium and it was in commercial operation in the year 1938, during which the production totalled about half a ton (metric). The demand, especially for pure zirconium, increased considerably during the war, attaining a total of about 48 tons during the period October, 1939, to the end of 1944, and reaching a peak of more than 15 tons in 1943. In 1944, the plant was slowed down due to the frequent and disastrous bombing by the Allies, especially in March and September.

Jan 1, 1946

By Z. Q. Chen, M. H. Loretto, Y. G. Li

"As-cast, As-forged, as-solution-treated, and solution treated and aged microstructures of Ti-15Mo (IMI205) with and without carbon were examined using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy .and transmission electron microscopy. Tensile testing was carried out at room temperature. It was found that carbon acts primarily as a titanium carbide former: Titanium carbides increase slightly the tensile strength, but decrease the ductility of IMI205. These observations are interpreted in terms of the titanium carbide morphology observed using SEM and TEM and the phase diagrams of Ti-Mo, Ti-C, and Mo-C.IntroductionIn a recent study on the development of a burn-resistant 13-Ti alloy, carbon was introduced· into the Ti-V-Cr system in order to optimise the mechanical properties. Research results[1, 2] demonstrate that carbon addition can refine the 13 grain size and improve the stability of the 13 phase in Ti-V-Cr alloys. The most attractive result is that carbon addition produced a marked improvement in the ductility of alloys when the carbon content is over 0.1 wt.% in this alloy system. Even after long exposure, the alloy with carbon addition maintains good ductility. One of the main reasons for the ductilising of the alloy is that titanium carbides can getter the oxygen from the 13 matrix.In view of the success of carbon addition in improving the properties and the stability of the Ti-V-Cr alloy, it is of interest to investigate the behaviour of carbon addition in other beta Ti-base alloys. The objective of the present work was, therefore, to assess the microstructures and mechanical properties of IMI 205, a metastable beta titanium alloy, with and without carbon addition using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), wavelength dispersive X-ray (WDX) analysis, room temperature tensile testing."

Jan 1, 2000

By Shilai Yuan, Huimin Lu, Liyuan Zhao, Zhijiang Gao

"A purification process was developed to removal impurity element boron from metallurgical grade silicon by electromagnetic induction slag melting. Vacuum melting furnace was used to purify boron in both Al2O3-MgO-CaO-SiO2 slag system and Al2O3-CaO-SiO2 slag system. The relationship between different slag chemistry and the removal of boron in silicon were studied using Back Propagation (BP) Neural Network model. The best slag chemistry for the removal of boron was predicted by Genetic Algorithm (GA) contributed by the use of Matlab. The results show that the mass fraction of Boron in silicon is reduced from 11.7496×10-6 to 2.3259×10-6 after slag melting in 28.96%Al2O3-3.43%MgO-36.24%CaO-31.37%SiO2 slag system. The relative error obtained with GA-BP Neural Network model was below 0.35%.IntroductionSolar energy, due to its low green house gas emissions, has been paid great attention. Accordingly, the demand for solar grade silicon (SoG-Si) has been growing rapidly. The quest for developing a low-cost method of producing SoG-Si has been moving forward in the last decade. Refining of metallurgical-grade silicon (MG-Si) attracts research interest due to its low material and energy costs, and more environmentally friendly technology in comparison to the traditional Simens process. As such, impurity elements in MG-Si must be removed to low levels for the photovoltaics (PV) cell to operate at optimum efficiency. Most impurities in metallurgical-grade silicon (MG-Si), especially metal elements, can be separated by directional solidification and the zone refining plasma-arc method [1, 2]. The main focus in refining MG-Si to SoG-Si is on the impurities which are the most difficult to remove. Boron has relatively high segregation coefficients (KB=0.8, concentration of Boron in solid silicon divided by its concentration in liquid silicon) [3] and higher vapor tension (the saturated vapor pressure of boron and silicon are 6.78×10-7 Pa and 0.4 Pa, respectively). The vacuum melting and directional solidification methods hence have no effects on boron removal.Slag refining involves melting MG-Si in the presence of a flux to produce a slag phase that can take up the impurity elements. The mechanism of slag refining is considered to include two main steps: the oxidation of boron and the absorption of boron oxide by slag materials. The oxidation of boron, described by the oxygen potential (PO2), resulting from the equilibrium Si and SiO2. The absorption of boron oxide, described as the slag basicity, is interpreted as expected to facilitate their extraction to alkali and alkali-earth oxides in the slag phase. Thus, effective removal may be obtained for a certain slag composition. Researchers [4-5] examined the effect of boron removal in CaO-SiO2 based ternary systems and showed that the addition of excess CaO can decrease the activity of SiO2. Researchers [6-8] studied the boron behaviors in CaO-SiO2-Al2O3, CaO-SiO2-Na2O, Al2O3-BaO-SiO2, CaO-SiO2-Li2O and Al2O3-CaO-MgO-SiO2 slag systems by adding boron in the silicon to a degree. Li2O, Na2O, MgO and BaO are thought to be associated with B2O3."

Jan 1, 2014

By Alexandre Monteiro

Alumina precursor powders can be precipitated from aqueous solutions, using hydrothermal decomposition of urea to deliver base homogeneously to the system. Primary particles agglomerate early in the process, generating a wide size distribution. The presence of a polymeric surfactant such as polyacrylate can suppress or delay agglomeration, reducing particle size and narrowing the size distribution. The stabilization of commercially available a-Alp03 powder with polyacrylate was studied, investigating the effects of polyacrylate molecular weight, ionic strength and temperature. The effect of aluminum concentration, polyacrylate molecular weight and urea concentration on the precipitation of alumina precursors in a sulfate- urea system in the presence of polyacrylate/polyacrylic acid was then studied. The hydrolysis kinetics were followed, and particle sizes were determined. Precipitates were further characterized using energy dispersive spectroscopy. The particle characteristics are discussed in terms of the process conditions.

Jan 1, 1994

By H. Tsuruta, A. Fujibayashi, I. Sumi, A. Murao, R. Murai

Injection of biomass into blast furnace as alternative reducing agent is so effective for the purpose of mitigation of carbon dioxide emissions from steel industries, because biomass is considered to be carbon neutral raw materials. Certain amount of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) is abandoned after Palm oil extraction process. To use as a reducing agent of blast furnace, PKS was carbonized and classified by 100 mesh sieve. To examine the gasification behavior of PKS carbide under the blast furnace conditions, several combustion experiments were conducted using hot model experimental furnace. The experimental results showed that the gasification efficiency of PKS carbide increased as the quantity of volatile matter increased. This tendency is the almost the same for the pulverized coal, so carbide of PKS can be used at blast furnace at appropriate amount of volatile matter that can be controlled by carbonization condition. In addition, the pressure drop of the furnace tends to decrease because the amount of ash in PKS carbide may be smaller than that of pulverized coal. PKS carbide is a suitable reducing agent in that respect.

Jan 1, 2015

By Y. S. Sun, P. Gao

Compared with conventional roasting and magnetic separation processes, higher reduction temperatures and stronger reducing atmospheres are used in reduction technologies to reduce iron oxides to metallic iron, which is often liberated during reduction and amenable to magnetic separation. Reduction and magnetic separation of an Australian refractory iron ore was therefore studied as a function of reduction temperature, time, coal addition, feed thickness and size of Australia iron ore. It was found that during reduction, the particle size of the reduced iron increased with reduction temperature and time. Subsequent magnetic separation tests were further conducted on the reduction products. A reduced iron powder with a Fe grade of 85.67% was obtained at a Fe recovery of 87.82% under optimum reduction conditions where a metallization rate of 85.82% was achieved. The mechanism involved in reduction is discussed based on XRD and SEM examinations. And the results indicated that theiron minerals such as hematite and limonite in the Australian iron ore were reduced as follows: Fe2O3?Fe3O4?FeO?Fe. Furthermore, the metallic iron particles produced by reduction increased in size with longer reduction times.

Jan 1, 2014

By William D. Riley

The U. S. Bureau of Mines has developed technology to recover by-product materials from aluminum scrap using engineered scavenger compounds (ESC). ESCs are structural oxides with a channel or tunnel structure that allows them to hold ions of a specitksizes and charges. The scavenging reaction is easily reversible allowing the ESC to be recharged for continued use and the ion is recovered as an electro deposit. Key features of this novel technology are; a) ESC ,systems are designed to have a high degree of selectivity for a desired ionic species. b) The recovered mater.ial requires little or no additional reprocessing prior to reuse. Two current uses for the ESC technology that are described in this paper are the removal and recycle oflithium (Li) from lithium aluminum (Li-AL) alloys; and, using ESCs as a replacement for the conventional demaging (magnesium removal) technology used by the secondary casting industry. Research indicates that the ESC technology proposed for both these applications has either 'distinct economic and/or environmental advantages over previously employed methods of recovering. metal values from aluminum scrap.

Jan 1, 1995

By Carlo Massa

THE Societá Auonima di Miniere e di Alti Fourni, familiarly known as the " Elba Company," works the rich ore-deposits of the Island of Elba under a long-term contract with the Italian Government. The ore-deposits are scattered over the eastern and southeastern coast; but as those parts of the island are not well provided with ports, the blast-furnaces were built at Portoferraio, the principal town of the island, situated on the northern shore, and possessing a magnificent natural harbor where even vessels as large as the battleships of the Italian navy can comfortably anchor. In the selection of Portoferraio. the cost of transporting the iron-ore from the different mines to the blast-furnaces has been reduced to a minimum, and shelter has been provided for the Company's flotilla of tugs and barges, as well as for the steamers carrying coal and pig-iron. The whole plant, of which a general view is given in Fig. 1, comprises 1. A discharging-pier with unloading-cranes. The ore and coal are transported from this pier by means of an aerial cable-rail¬way to the coal- and ore-storage yards. This cable-railway is supported by an iron bridge extending from the pier to the shore and by a wooden trestle extending from the shore to the yards. , 2. Blast furnaces, two in number, with all the accessory appa¬ratus, such as blowing-engines, dry purifiers, Cowper hot-blast stoves, hoists, etc. 3. Coke-ovens, two batteries, with coal-bin, crushers and boilers. 4. Engine-house containing the blast-engines and the electric generating-station. 5. Pumping-plant. 6. Narrow-gauge railways.

Mar 1, 1905

By Wagner Viana Bielefeldt, Felipe Buboltz Ferreira, Antônio Cezar Faria Vilela

The continuous casting machine is one of the most important steel production steps in a melt shop. The tundish, a reservoir between the steelmaking ladle and the mold, has great influence over the steel cleanliness, along with the productivity bid. It must takes into account the quality of the metal and operational safety. Several different variables are related to the tundish process, of inclusionary cleanliness. Some of them are discussed in this paper: the free opening of ladle, tundish inertization, steel temperature in the reservoir and clogging formation, besides a brief topic about castability. Therefore, a critical analysis, with a review from some papers available in literature, is proposed in this study, with its focus on tundish.

Oct 1, 2019

By Adriana da Cunha Rocha, Carlos Bruno Eckstein, Gabriela Ribeiro Pereira, Clara Johanna Pacheco, Elaine Felix da Silva, Raphael Silva de Araújo, Laudemiro Nogueira Junior, Luiz Henrique de Almeida

A composição química da camada de óxido formada durante operação em um forno de reforma a vapor por 70000 h em um aço inox resistente ao calor grau HP-Nb, foi analisada através da espectroscopia Raman confocal, com o objetivo de correlacionar as características químicas e morfológicas dos óxidos com os diferentes estados de envelhecimento. Os espectros Raman, adquiridos pontos aleatórios da camada de óxidos, revelam que os óxidos de Fe (-Fe2O3 e Fe3O4), bem como os óxidos mistos NiFe2O4 e NiFeMnO4 são as espécies predominantes no estado de envelhecimento I. Amostras envelhecidas dão origem a espectros característicos de Cr2O3, MnCr2O4, Fe3O4 e NiFe2O4, em consonância com estudos recentes reportados na literatura.

Oct 20, 2019

By Charles E. Dandois

New is a relative term, and, when used with reference to a concept as old as shaft kilns can be applied to a number of designs. In this case the design that is the subject of this paper, is known as the ring or annular shaft kiln as developed by Mr. Karl Beckenbach of West Germany. The first&apos; operating unit was rated 185 tons per day and was installed in 1962. Today, there are approximately 84 units in operation in Western Europe and Japan. Twenty-one additional units are in the process of erection or on order. Developed sizes range from approximately 100 to 330 tons per day. Units of over 500 tons are in the design stage, however, the largest units presently operating are rated 330 tons per day, <the first: of this size having been installed in 1966. "Figure" 1 is an elevation view of the unit. It is a single vertical cylinder to which are attached the required service platforms, combustion chambers, injectors and distribution piping. Auxiliaries such as recuperator, exhaust fan and dust collector are mounted on the appropriate service platform. The charging pan, feed conveyor, etc. are mounted at the kiln top. At the bottom of the kiln is the silo with a vibrator type discharger, and mounted separately is the required blower for injector air and fan for internal cooling.

Jan 1, 1973

By James W. Reeves

DuPont was the titanium metal pioneer who put the greatest effort into both R&D and commercial sponge and powder metallurgy production. This was concentrated in the period 1945 through 1963. The commercial results were development of the chloride process for TiCl4 using ilmenite, development and improvement of the Kroll process, development of a modified Hunter process to make titanium powder and commercial development of a direct powder process. The powder metallurgical process failed because of the inability to meet powder chloride specifications. All this work remained a trade secret until published in NMAB -392 by Mahla in 1983. There were other processes explored by DuPont, both improved sponge and powder processes. Much of this work has been continued by others but none, as of yet, resulting in new improved titanium metal capacity.

Jan 1, 2001

THIS paper is not intended to be a detailed description of the lead, smelting plant at Cockle Creek, as this has been covered in previous papers for the Institute in 1918, Proceedings No. 31, by other members of the staff; but the idea is to give some of the practices and conditions peculiar to these works, also to give some experiments carried out and the conclusions arrived at. Unfortunately, owing to the closing down of the smelting and refinery plant at these works, sone of the experiments could not be carried to a more definite and commercial basis, but they are given in the hope that they may be of interest to members, and may perhaps suggest further thought along the lines indicated.ROASTING AND SINTERINGThe greater part of the ore treated at these works came from the Central mine, Broken Hill, but, in addition, a large quantity was purchased from other parts of New South Wales and from Tasmania. This purchased ore was seldom received in the form of a concentrate, but initially in its crude state, and therefore had to be crushed. The crushing was done in a Krupp mill, and the ore then added to the roasting mixture. This addition of crude ore was one of the main...

Jan 1, 1923

By Eduardo Viedo Moreira

Analisou-se o tratamento térmico de revenimento de grampos ferroviários, modelo E2039AV, feitos a partir de barras redondas com aproximadamente 20 mm de diâmetro do aço SAE 9254 tendo como objetivo reduzir o tempo do processo de fabricação. A temperatura do forno foi mantida em 490ºC e 18 grampos foram imersos no sal fundido. Em grupos de 3, os grampos foram retirados em intervalos de 10 minutos, tendo o último grupo permanecido no forno por 60 minutos. Após cada retirada foram feitos os ensaios necessários para aferir a qualidade das peças: carga estática, dureza e fadiga. Após apenas 10 minutos de revenimento os grampos já resistiam ao mínimo de 1.000 kgf sem fraturar e apresentaram medidas de dureza próximas ao limite superior de especificação, ou seja, a dureza que era aproximadamente 58 HRC antes do revenido, atingiu valores próximos a 48 HRC. O último teste, fadiga, foi feito apenas nos grupos de grampos revenidos por 30 e 50 minutos. Pôde-se concluir que é possível reduzir o tempo de revenimento do grampo E2039AV feito de aço SAE 9254 de 60 minutos para pelo menos 50 minutos mantendo-se a qualidade dos grampos sem a necessidade de aumentar a temperatura do forno.

Aug 17, 2017

By O. C. Ralston

Natural or artificial manganese dioxide of a grade pure enough to be satisfactory as depolarizer for dry cells has never been available in large supply simultaneously with being available in desired quality . The Second World War called for more of it than ever . A supply of natural material from the Gold Coast was ample for the war and was not completely exhausted . Whereas the crystal form of the manganese oxide was not recognized as a matter of importance until the war came , it is now known that gamma MnO2 is a desirable form and that pyrolusite , once thought acceptable , is not the best mineral . The following paper is a translation of an internal company report filed at the Bitterfeld office of the I. G. Farbenindustrie A.G. by Dr. Peter Marx in 1933 , just a year after G. W. Nichols had published in the Transactions of the American Electrochemical Society a study of making anodic manganese dioxide from solutions of manganous sulfate . The I. G. experiments were made to confirm the American work and were also extended to a larger scale . Only chemical purity was considered , and no mention is made of crystal form . The report adds to the knowledge submitted by Nichols but has not been previously available to the general public . Believing it of value to the United States industry , a translation has been made .

May 1, 1948

By Jiang Diao, Yong Qiao, Xuan Liu, Tao Zhang, Bing Xie

Adding CaO into the vanadium extraction converter is an effective way to decrease the dephosphorization burden in subsequent steelmaking process. The crystallisation process of spinel is one of the most decisive factors in the subsequent extraction. The theoretical calculation results show that the temperature of the peak total crystallization rate will decrease 5K with basicity increasing 0.1. The relation between cooling conditions and grain size of spinels is also discussed. It is found that low cooling rate and high basicity benefit spinel crystal growth. And the non-isothermal crystallization kinetics results indicated that the restriction factors of spinel growth is that solid crystals accept new components from liquid-solid interfacial. While the sample was cooled down to 1250 (1523K) at cooling rate of 5K/min, the crystal growth is consistent with Ostwald coarsening grew up law, and controlled by diffusion of particle.

Jan 1, 2016

In the new flowsheet for Inco Limited&apos;s S02, Abatement Project at the Copper Cliff, Ontario operations, a copper/nickel sulphide flotation concentrate will be flash smelted, then converted to Bessemer matte. As in current practice, this will be slow-cooled and separated into components by magnetic separation and flotation. The copper content will emerge as a chalcocite concentrate (impure Cu2S), containing some nickel. This copper sulphide will be converted to copper metal.

Jan 1, 1993