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By Louis C. Brichta

The Kline tract ?3.nd the Frey tract are two separate properties situated in the Wentworth district on the easterly edge of the Tri-State zinc-lead region (fig. 1). The Kline tract is in the southwestern corner of Lawrence County, Mo., and the Frey tract, 1 1/2 miles west of the Kline, is in the northeastern part of Newton County, Mo. A bureau Of Mines drilling project embraced work on both properties, but the amount of work done on the Frey tract was comparatively small. At the time of the project the Kline tract was under lease to the Wentworth Mining & Milling Co. The Surprise Mining Co. held the lease on the Frey tract. Underground workings on the generally flat-bedded are deposits of the Kline property-covered an area of-about 15 acres. No total metal-production records are available. In 1942-1943 the mine, operated by the Wentworth Mining & Milling Co., produced at an average monthly rate of 83 tons of 60-percent zinc concentrate derived from mining and milling 1,700 to 2,100 tons of ore. At the end of that period no significant amount of reserve ore was in sight. The gravity-flotation mill on the property was operating at about one-sixth capacity.

Jan 1, 1949

By Richard L. Bullock

INTRODUCTION TO COAL MINE PRACTICES To illustrate the trends and the proportions of the various methods used to mine coal underground, Fig. 1 is useful. However, of all the underground coal mining practices in the US, room-and-pillar mining still accounts for 96.5%. This percentage is divided as follows: conventional, machine cut-33.0%; conventional, hand cut -1.7% : and continuous mining-61 .8%. As was stated in Sec. 1, Chap. 7, the term "development" means different things to a coal miner and a metal miner. Though some of the ideas and concepts presented in the first two chapters of this section are valid for all types of mines, they apply particularly to mines using noncoal methods. In coal mines (and many other mines using coal mining systems) development refers to that phase of the mining cycle which advances several entries through the virgin seam, forming pillars by cross- cutting between the parallel entries. Because in the past, coal seams (as well as seams of potash, trona, oil shales, gilsonite, salt, and some uranium) have been much more uniform in their thickness, continuity, and quality, and because they often cover large areas, it has been possible to develop the room-and-pillar mine completely from a preplanned, systematic approach with a minimum of surface drilling information. As the better coal seams of the midwest and east are being depleted (or eliminated because of high sulfur), seams of poor quality and continuity will have to be mined. Also, seams that are not nearly so well known at greater depth will have to be taken as well as some of the steeply pitching and folded seams of the west. The American coal miner is only now feeling the need to do a much more complete job of prospecting the geology of the coal seams than he has ever done before. This is the only way that the risk of unknown rock conditions can be minimized. In many ways, surprises in the rock or coal seams are much more of a disaster to the coal miner developing a room-and- pillar mine than to his metal mining counterpart. Be- cause of the multiple entries, the complex set of the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety regulations, and the totally dedicated design of coal mining equipment, coal mining systems do not have the flexibility to easily overcome changes in the seams mined or the rocks around them. Thus, if a wide parting of rock shows up unexpectedly in the middle of a coal seam entry being milled away by a continuous miner, it will either have to slowly "chew" through it, convert to a conventional mining system, or stop that particular entry. Likewise, if suddenly the coal disappears completely and in its place are the remains of an old creek bed, the "want" or "wash out" as it's called will usually have to be mined right along with the coal, by the same methods and with the same soft rock equipment, or the entry will have to be abandoned. For reasons such as these, coal seams today should be drilled from the surface just as thoroughly as the ore bodies in metal mines. Having once determined a more precise location of where the coal seams are located and which are suitable for mining, the engineer must still take a systematic approach to planning the mine as completely as possible. The initial series of entries must be planned to be driven either from the side hill portal or from the bottom of the shaft or slope. In either case, they should usually intersect the area close to the midpoint of the mass to be mined.

Jan 1, 1982

By Andre L. De Vegt

Hydrogen sulfide is an expensive chemical used in nickel, zinc and copper mining and metallurgical operations for selective recovery and concentration of metals, from leach water streams, acid plant blow down streams, refinery electrolyte bleeds and precious metal, plant bleeds. Hydrogen sulfide is either produced on site by catalytic reduction of elemental sulfur or transported to the site as liquefied hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or as a sodium sulfide solution (NaHS) Biologically produced hydrogen sulfide has economically very interesting, application possibilities in the mining and metallurgical industry. Converting sulfates from waste streams into usable hydrogen sulfide by biological reduction results in operational cost savings in existing lime treatment systems. H2S can be produced biologically for less-than $500/ton S. For the past ten years Paques has been engaged in the development and installation of treatment systems based on biotechnological processes to remove sulfur compounds from water, air and gaseous streams. Paques has designed and installed a groundwater treatment system for the Budelco zinc refinery in the Netherlands to remove sulfate and heavy metals. The hydrogen sulfide produced is used for recovery of metals,, mainly zinc, from the ground water stream. The system has been operating since May 1992 treating a flow of 5000 m3/d. At Kennecott's Bingham Canyon Utah copper mine, a pilot plant started operation in November 1995 to develop the process for selective recovery of copper from leach water using biologically produced hydrogen sulfide from sulfate containing groundwater. Other pilot plants are operated at DOE's Pittsburgh Research Center and at Cominco Research focusing on selective recovery of metals.

Jan 1, 1998

[Trans. No,PlaceDate Vol. Page1 1. Wilkes-Barre, Pa*May, '71 13 2, Bethlehem, Pa Aug., '71110 3, Troy, N. Y Nov., '71.. 113 4. Philadelphia, PaFeb,, '72.. 117 5, New York, N, Y.*May, '72,, 120 6. Pittsburgh, Pa Oct,, '72,, 125 7. Boston, Mass Feb,, '73.. 128 8. Philadelphia, Pa,*May, '73., 23 9. Easton, PaOct., '73., 27 10. New York, N, Y Feb., '74,, 211 11. St. Louis, Mo,*May, '74.. 33 12, Hazleton, PaOct., '74., 38 13, New Haven, ConnFeb., '75., 315 14. Dover, N. J,*May, '75.. 43 15, Cleveland, 0Oct,, '75,, 49]

Jan 1, 1928

By S. Shamaila

The design and efficient operation of density-based mineral processing units requires regular densimetric analysis to be carried out on the various associated process streams. The results obtained from such analyses can have wide application, including the generation of washability and partition curves, which are critical for process design, control, and simulation. This paper describes some of the collaborative efforts that Kumba Iron Ore, in partnership with Springer New Technology and Anglo Technical Solutions Research, is pursuing in developing a novel density determination technique exploiting X-ray transmission (XRT) and optical imaging. This technique is being developed with the aim to determine sample density distributions that apply to washability characterisation of ores. This technique is aimed to be an alternative to the traditional sink and float method. For certain applications sink and float has required the use of tetrabromoethane (TBE) solution?a chemical that has been classified as harmful and environmentally unfriendly. This paper therefore presents some achievements in developing this novel technique which seems to be very promising.

Jan 1, 2012

By E. Czech

Hydrogen generated through aluminum-assisted water split reaction is a novel, efficient and environmentally friendly method. It has been found previously that the passivation of aluminum can be prevented in neutral (pH=7) or near neutral pH conditions in water by grinding aluminum with a catalyst, such as A12O3, SiO2 or SiC. Recently, the best results have been obtained by using water-soluble inorganic salts (WIS), ground with aluminum. The massive, rapid corrosion reaction of the Al-WIS system which takes place in regular tap (or marine, or ground) water can be utilized to produce hydrogen by aluminum-assisted water split reaction, in-situ, on-demand. The reaction offers clean, low-cost, environmentally benign and entirely recyclable technology for on-board on-demand hydrogen generation. Besides pure gaseous hydrogen, only pure solid aluminum hydroxides AlOOH or Al(OH)3 are formed as the reaction products. The hydrogen yield and Al-WIS reaction efficiency are high. From 1 g of mechanically alloyed aluminum powder, up to 1.25 liters of hydrogen were generated, i.e. efficiency up to 92% was achieved. The amount of hydrogen and hydrogen generation rate depend on various reaction parameters. The effect of chemistry and concentration of additives, water temperature, powder particle size and milling conditions on the reaction kinetics will be presented and the possible process mechanism will be discussed.

Jan 1, 2005

By Jilai Xue, Jun Zhu, Liang Liu

"Separation removal of fluorite and calcite from scheelite is a difficult technical operation in current industrial practice with a heating process causing large energy consumption and high production costs. In this work, the floatation separation at room temperature were carried out using two types of skarn scheelite ores. The results showed that CaO and Na203 are better than NaOH as a regulator in pH value. In the rough floatation and first cleaning floatation, CaO (500g/t), Na203 (3000g/t) were used as a pH regulator, waterglass (4000g/t) was as a gangue depressant, oleic acid or sodium oleate were used as a collector. The degree of the obtained W03 concentrate was more than 65% (commercial product).IntroductionThe mainly gangue in scheelite are quartz, calcite, barite and some rare metal ores. There are three main types of scheelite for floatation: scheelite--quartz (silicate minerals) type, scheelite-calcite/ fluorite type, scheelite--calcite/fluorite/barite type. Generally speaking, scheelite--quartz type is separated easily, and others are difficult, on the contrary. The last two kinds of scheelite are always called scheelite--calcite/fluorite (barite) type, because there are similar floatation ability and floatation process between them. Scheelite, calcite and fluorite have same cation - Ca2+, it makes them have close floatation property [1]. Separation removal of fluorite and calcite from scheelite is a difficult technical operation in current industrial practice.The traditional separation method is a heating floatation process (Petrov's process) [2]. It can deal with many kinds of scheelite, and can be obtained stable quality ofW03 concentrate. On the other hand Petrov's process causes large energy consumption, high production costs and bad operational environments. Since 1980s, scheelite ambient temperature floatation has become the mainstream of study [3]. Nowadays more and more studies on scheelite floatation focus on complex reagent system [4, 5], rigid operating rules and at the same time development new regulator [1, 5]. Some research show there are new regulators can concentrate scheelite efficiently, but it may cause high costs, potential pollution and difficulty to spread. Oleic acid and sodium oleate used as collector have high adsorption capacity to scheelite, but same to calcite and fluorite[6]. So, it would not get ideal effect for separation of scheelite. In this work, the floatation separation at room temperature were carried out using two kinds of skarn scheelite ores. Calcium oxide and sodium carbonate was used as a pH value regulator, waterglass was used as a depressant and Oleic acid/sodium oleate was used as a collector. The result of experiment showed that the degree of the obtained W03 concentrate was more than 65% by one time ambient temperature roughing floatation, several times ambient temperature cleaning process."

Jan 1, 2014

By Thomas Kuhn, Anna Wegorzewski

"INTRODUCTIONPolymetallic nodules from the Clarion and Clipperton Zone (CCZ) within the equatorial NE Pacific Ocean show high concentration of economic important strategic metals such as Ni, Cu, Co, Mo and Rare Earth Elements (REE). The content of those metals in nodules is depending on (i) the supply during individual growing periods, (ii) the environment conditions as well as (iii) on different manganese minerals, which occur in nodules. The incorporation of the metals can vary within the structure (incorporated into the structure / over vacancies of the structure) and this can be relevant for the further metallurgical treatment.Mineralogy of Mn-nodules from the CCZ and the incorporation of metalsManganese nodules consist of nm to µm thick layer growth structures (LGS) of different genetic origin (hydrogenetic/suboxic-diagenetic). Those LGS form due to the precipitation of Mn-and Fe-(oxy) hydroxide colloids from the oxygen rich near-bottom water and/or pore water (hydrogenetic growth; Halbach et al., 1988) or from suboxic (depleted in O2 <5µmol O2/l; Hein and Koschinsky 2013)) near-bottom water/pore water (suboxicdiagenetic growth; Halbach et al., 1988; Wegorzewski and Kuhn, 2014).In general, metals dissolved in seawater will be adsorbed and complexed on the oxide surfaces according to their different surface charge. The surface charge of the Mn-Fe (oxy) hydroxides depends on the pHzpc (zpc: zero point of charge). In seawater dissolved hydrated cations (Ni2+, Cu2+, Co2+) are adsorbed preferentially on the negatively charged Mn-oxide (MnO2 -) surface (pHzpc 2.8). In contrast, negatively and neutrally charged complexes (e.g., Ti(OH4); REE(CO3)2 -, MoO4 2-) are adsorbed on the surface of Fe-oxy hydroxide colloids (FeOOH+) which have a slightly positively charged surface (pHzpc 8.5; Stumm and Morgan, 1981; Koschinsky and Halbach 1995)."

Jan 1, 2017

By R. B. Yerxa, C. F. Green, H. O. Hofman

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, In refining copper, the metal is melted down in a reverbera tory furnace in a more or less oxidizing atmosphere and then further subjected to an oxidizing smelting in order to eliminate the common impurities, most of which have a stronger affinity for oxygen than has copper. In these operations some of the copper is oxidized to cuprous oxide and dissolved by the metal bath. When the quantity of dissolved cuprous oxide has reached about 6 per cent, the metal is said to have been brought to " set-copper." A button-sample will show a depressed surface and, when broken, a single bubble at the apex of the depression; the fracture will be brick-red and dull. It is essential to carry the oxidation to this point in order to know that the impurities have been oxidized as far as it is possible under the given working-conditions. Nearly all the cuprous oxide of the set-copper is now reduced to the metallic state by poling, when "tough-pitch" copper will be obtained. A button-sample will show a flat surface. Upon breaking, it will be found that the former bubble has disappeared and that the fracture has become rose-colored and shows a silky luster. The quantity of cuprous oxide allowed to remain in the copper will vary with the impurities still present in the metal and with the degree of pitch that it is desired to reach. It is essential for the general physical and the mechanical properties of the resulting copper that such impurities as arsenic, antimony, bismuth, lead shall be present in the oxidized state, as they are

Jan 1, 1904

By Victor E. Kral

"INTRODUCTION The Phelps Stokes iron deposit, also known as the Iron Mountain claim, was examined by G. L. Thompson, an engineer of the Bureau of Mines, in January 1943. As a result, the Division of Geophysical Exploration 3/ made a magnetorater survey of the deposit in June 1944, and the Mining Branch included it in a,project to explore Nevada iron deposits.The Bureau explored the deposit from September to November 1944 by means of 643 feet of diamond drilling and 445 feet of trenching holes were drilled, all of which penetrated more than: 100 feet of good-grade magnetite, although nearly all the ore except that found in the first hole contained an excessive amount of sulfur. Trenching was done largely over the first two holes, PS-1 and PS-2, and exposed the full width of the ore.The deposit is in Nye County, Nevada, 7.7 miles east of Gabbs. The property was discovered in 1902 was patented in 1907. There has been no production from the property and except for the Bureau's investigation,,has not been, explored since it was patented.Magnetite is the principal ore mineral; it occurs as fine-grained particles associated with sulfides and cemented with talc and calcite."

Feb 1, 1947

By Charles Morgan

AN increased demand for brown iron ore in the Birmingham district during the past 18 months has caused renewed activity both in prospecting and mining these ores. In recent years the production in Alabama has ranged from 41,559 tons in 1932 to 639,351 tons in 1928. During the last 9 years about 83 per cent of the total brown ore produced in the United States has come from Alabama (Tables 1 and 2). PROSPECTING Two methods of prospecting are used in this district: (1) test pits, (2) churn-drilling. Usually there is certain quite definite information on an area to be prospected; some of the indications are float ore suck as small gravel or small and large boulders known as "dornicks” scattered over the surface, and ore exposed by erosion in gulleys and ravines, which have cut or eroded through the overburden. Often these natural erosions furnish an indication of the thickness of the ore and to some extent of the area of the ore body. Deposits of brown ore are very irregular both in thickness and extent. Deposits are often lens-shaped or long narrow leads, some of which may be parallel and separated from one another by sand, clay or gravel. The bottom-the footwall-is also very irregular. This footwall is usually lime clay-disintegrated limestone, locally called "white horse," which usually is found at a depth of 6 in. to 20 ft. overlying the limestone. At some places sand and gravel is found under the ore instead of clay. No ore is found under the lime clay, although often the ore has sunk or slumped and is found in the upper portion of this clay, as at some of the Sloss workings at Russellville. The origin of these ores has been discussed by Major E. C. Eckel and Dr. E. F. Burchard in U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 400, and recently the latter has done further work on ores in the Russellville district, of which reports undoubtedly will be published.

Jan 1, 1937

By Thomas A. Boyce

Introduction Although innovative coal extraction technology can be approached from many angles, this paper focuses on three: innovation in response to rising costs, to changing mining conditions, and to regulatory issues. Before exploring these three subjects, however, a basic question needs to be raised. Why Innovation? Coal is widely heralded, and quite correctly so, as the United States&apos; "ace in the hole." It has been said that the U.S. is to coal what the Arabs are to oil. The implication is that we have nearly inexhaustible reserves - that coal is cheap, plentiful, and easy to extract. Indeed, because our current productive capacity is estimated to be 15-20% greater than demand, we have been given a false sense of security about the ease of future coal extraction. Therefore, innovative measures are being concentrated on developing technologies for the demand side of coal, including power generation, synthetic fuels, and industrial applications. What is often forgotten is that the unit cost of producing energy from these new technologies depends critically on the cost of the coal feedstock -in some cases the coal consumed accounts for more than one-third the total cost. Thus, while the developers of the end-use technologies struggle to improve the overall thermal efficiency of their process by one or two per¬centage points to make the energy produced competitive in the marketplace, they often are unaware of the risk of a 3 to 6% increase in coal costs wiping out the expensive, hard-earned results of their research. Energy planners are just beginning to realize that coal is not a uniform commodity available at low cost in infinite quantities. Coal is a heterogeneous material whose cost and quality vary widely with local conditions. To produce the massive amounts of projected coal-based energy at reasonable costs, we urgently need devel¬opments in extraction technology, as well as in end-use technology. Thus, coal extraction, coal conversion and utilization, and end -use energy consumption must be viewed as highly interdependent parts of an energy supply network (Fig. 1). And current emphasis on conversion and utilization must be balanced by more emphasis on upstream technologies, including coal extraction. Even more important, the impacts of innovation (or the lack thereof) in any one technology area in the energy supply network need to be discussed and understood by those working in each of the other areas. Why innovation in coal ex¬traction technology? Figuratively, we are all in the "coal boat" together - geologists, miners, transporters, processors, power producers, distributors, and consumers. Innovation is required from each of these sectors to overcome the obstacles that prevent greater use of our most abundant national energy resource. All other links in the coal energy supply network depend on large volumes of coal produced at reasonable costs. Declines in productivity, therefore, must be reversed; the more difficult mining conditions that will be encountered call for new methods and equipment, and regulatory issues must be resolved if the coal ex¬traction link is to be a strength rather than a weakness in the planned U.S. transition to an economy based more on coal and less on imported petroleum. Innovation Tailored to Regional Conditions Once the importance and urgency of innovative coal extraction technology has been grasped, the next step - implementing a research program - becomes quite

Jan 1, 1980

By K. Parameswaran

This paper builds on presentations made at the Conference of Metallurgists (COM) 2015, COM 2017 and Extraction 2018 and associated papers published in the respective conference proceedings. Based on the classic Brundtland Commission definition of sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,” the paper describes how metal mining can be compatible with sustainable development and how sustainability considerations have been applied in the primary copper industry, using several examples of sustainable mining practices from ASARCO LLC operations. Finally, the paper discusses how these considerations might be used in the future by discussing the need for developing a sustainable development strategy and how this strategy can be aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. INTRODUCTION The primary copper industry comprises: mining (also referred to as “extraction”); mineral processing (also referred to as “beneficiation, “milling” or “concentration,”) which includes leaching, solvent extraction (SX), crushing, grinding, froth and flotation operations; and metallurgical processing which includes smelting and converting; refining, which includes fire-refining or anode refining and electro-refining; and electrowinning (EW). There are two routes for producing refined copper: hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical. The hydrometallurgical route comprises mining (open-pit and underground), mineral processing (crushing and grinding — for heap leaching only; leaching and SX) and metallurgical processing (EW). The pyrometallurgical route involves mining, mineral processing (crushing, grinding and froth flotation) and metallurgical processing (smelting, fire refining and electro- refining). The primary copper industry is capital, water, resource and energy intensive with the potential for significant environmental impacts, if the environmental aspects are not properly managed. ASARCO LLC (Asarco) was organized in 1899 as the American Smelting And Refining Company. Originally a consolidation of several lead-silver smelting companies, it evolved over the years into an integrated producer of primary non-ferrous metals, including copper, lead and zinc and associated co-products. Grupo México, S.A.B. de C.V (Grupo México) acquired Asarco in 1999. Today, Asarco is a vertically integrated producer of primary refined copper and associated co-products such as gold, silver, selenium and tellurium. Asarco operates three open-pit mines and mills, two leach, SX-EW plants, a copper smelter in Arizona and a copper electrolytic refinery in Texas.

Jan 1, 2019

By S. Stutz

Coal, like most other minerals, only exceptionally occurs in a sufficiently pare state to he directly available for general manufacturing purposes. And even where this is the case, the small coal or slack is usually more impure than the lump coal, as the slate, clay, etc., from the roof and bottom of the vein become mixed with it in the handling it undergoes. These impurities often exceed ten or more per cent. in addition to the impurities of the coal itself. The most common impurities of the coal are slate, or shale, clay, and sulphur. The latter occurs in different forms, but moat frequently as bisulphide of iron, or iron pyrites, and as sulphate of lime, or gypum. In both cases the impnrities add greatly to the amount of ash, and where they are present in considerable quantities the raw coal, and still more the coke made from it, is unfit for the manufacture of iron. Coke will coutain on an average at least fifty per cent. more ash and sulphur than the ram coal from which it is made. To the manufacturer of iron every additional per cent. of ash which his coal or coke contains is a source of additional expense, seemingly small, and yet very important in the aggregate. In the blast-furnace, for instance, the ash must be heated up to the melting-point, and, since it is composed largely of refractory substances, the consumption of carbon in melting it will be equal to at least one-half of its weight; that is, a certain part of tile coke is consumed for the melting and fluxing of the ash and is lost. Besides this, it is well enough known to the iron-master that coke containing lees ash makes the &lag or cinder more liquid and less incliner1 to stick to the walls of the furnace. Fuel containing much sulphur produces generally a white iron, poor in carbon, while from the same ore arrd flux, with a pure fuel, a good foundry iron might be obtained. The work of separating slate, sulphur, etd, from the coal has as yet only been successfully accomplished by the washing process. This process depends for its success on the differences in the specific

Jan 1, 1881

By Merwin H. Howes

Gnome shaft, situated about 24 miles southeast of Carlsbad, N. Mex., was designed and sunk by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for conducting a peace- time experimental nuclear explosion in the thick salt beds of the Permian Salado formation. Excavation was started July 1, 1960, and completed July 26, 1961. The 10-foot diameter shaft, lined with concrete through the rock section, was sunk 1,216 feet. A drift was driven approximately 1,140 feet on the 1,200- foot level terminating in a shot chamber. On completion of 100 feet of shaft, by means of a truck-mounted crane, facilities were installed for conventional sinking. About 709 feet of rock and 506 feet of salt were encountered in the shaft. Salt beds at this place are reported to be over 1,200 feet thick. The overlying rock section varies greatly in composition and thickness of beds and contains a 28-foot bed of water-bearing dolomite. The aquifer was sealed to facilitate shaft sinking and to prevent water-seepage damage in the salt section of the shaft. Sealing was accomplished by grout injection through holes drilled into the aquifer and by grouting behind the concrete liner.

Jan 1, 1963

By E. A. Gulbransen, J. W. Hickman

Recent work by the authors1 on the oxide films formed on alloys of titanium and zirconium with nickel and copper indicated that an investigation of the oxides which form on alloys of copper and nickel might permit the relative rates of formation and diffusion of the ions of these metals to be determined. This binary system is of further interest since the alloys which form are of the solid solution type over the entire range. In addition nickel is much more oxidation resistant than copper. A comparison of the free energies of formation of the simple oxides which may occur on these alloys indicates that nickel oxide should be observed over the entire time and temperature ranges of oxidation for all alloy compositions~i In order for nickel oxide to predominate on the surface, it is necessary that nickel ions form and diffuse to the surface. Two factors which may influence the formation of nickel oxide may be the ionic sizes, where cu+ is o.,,6-,4 and ~i++ is o.,oh;, and the charges on the ions. On the basis of size, Ni++ should diffuse more readily than Cu+ while on the basis of charge, Cu+ should form more readily than Ni++. According to Uhlig2 passivity to corrosion in an alloy appears at a critical composition which for copper-nickel alloys is related to the tendency of the d band of electronic energy states to fill with elec-trans. This in in the copper- nickel alloys corresponds to 40 at. pct nickel at which composition Uhlig2 (quoting La Que&apos;s data) states that the alloy system becomes passive. Magnetic and specific heat data indicate that the d band of copper-nickel alloys is flied at 60 at. Pet Or or 4O at. pct nickel. Matt and Jones3 have shown that if, on alloying nickel with copper, one considers a copper atom to be identical with a nickel atom except for an extra electron (nickel has the configuration: 3ds 4s2 and copper: 3 dl0 4s) then at 60 at. pct copper or 40 at. pct nickel enough electrons are contributed by copper to fill the d band of the alloy. At this composition the magnetic susceptibility approximates zero according to Grew.4 Although the electron diffraction data will not determine the rates of the several reactions which may occur during oxidation, yet a determination of the structures of the surface oxides may yield information concerning the relationships, if any, which may exist between the oxide structures which form and that composition where the magnetic susceptibility approximates zero. It is quite possible, of course, that the mechanisms of the oxidation and corrosion reactions may be so widely different that no correlations between them may be possible. Survey OF Literature The metals, copper and nickel, which are face-centered cubic, form solid solution alloys which are face-centered cubic with no superstructure for all compositions. Three oxides of nickel have been investigated structurally by X ray diffraction. Of

Jan 1, 1949

By M. A. Jones

Performance of a pilot flood in eastern Kansas indicates improved recovery and accelerated production resulting from mobility ratio control obtained by adding a high moleculur weight polymer to injected water. Ultimate pilot flood recovery of the 75-cp reservoir oil is anticipated to he 350 bbllacre-ft during the six-year flood life. Cumulative recovery to date totals 242 bbl/acre-ft after 30 months of injection. Reservoir parameters and flood performance are disc~rssed in detail to provide a case history relating to the feasibility of polymer flooding. INTRODUCTION The Vernon Polymer flood of the Brazos Oil & Gas Co., located in Sec. 2, 24 S., 16 E., Woodson County, Kans., was begun in late Oct., 1963. Injection of a 500 ppm solution of Pusher* polymer was initiated in a 15-acre pilot to determine feasibility of improving oil recovery by mobility ratio control. Performance to date and the anticipated recovery of 115,000 bbl from the 329 acre-ft pilot indicate efficient displacement of the viscous reservoir oil. Dependence of flood recovery on the displacing fluid-displaced oil mobility ratio has long been recognized. Displacement efficiency of the reservoir oil decreases with increasing mobility ratio. Therefore, economic reduction of this parameter is an attractive approach to improving oil recovery. particularly from viscous oil reservoirs where mobility ratios are often quite high. Waterflood mobility ratios can be controlled by dilute solutions of certain polymers&apos;; which provide a displacing fluid with considerably reduced mobility. Reservoir parameters and flood performance are emphasized in this paper to provide data relating to polymer flood applicability. THEORY The polymer used in the Vernon pilot exhibits the property of unusually high resistance to flow through porous media.&apos;.&apos; A small concentration in injected water effects a mobility reduction considerably beyond that predicted from increases in bulk viscosity as measured in a capillary or rotating cup viscosimeter. Water mobility in the subject flood is reduced by a factor of 7.55 with the addition of 500 ppm Pusher chemical to injected water while the bulk viscosity is increased from 1.03 to only 1.40 cp at 75F. The exact flow mechanism causing resistance to flow has not been established; however, it is observed only in tortuous flow systems and appears to be influenced by brine properties, rock properties and oil saturation. Consequently, mobility reduction is estimated from flow studies for a given sample of reservoir rock and is expressed in terms of a "resistance factor".&apos; This parameter is defined as the ratio of brine mobility to polymer solution mobility measured at residual oil saturation: RF= ?m/?p= (km/µm)/(kp/µp)M.......(1) where RF = resistance factor (dimensionless) k*. and A, = mobility of water and polymer solution, respectively k,,, and k,, = water and polymer permeability, respectively (darcies) µie and µp = viscosity of water and polymer, respectively (poise). Eq. 1 is similar to the expression commonly used to relate the relative mobility of the water bank at residual oil saturation to oil-bank mobility at irreducible water saturation: where M =mobility ratio of water to oil (dimension-less) A, = mobility of oil k, = permeability to oil (darcies) )i* = oil viscosity (poise). From Eqs. 1 and 2 it is apparent that the polymer-solution-to-oil-mobility ratio can be approximated by dividing the brine-to-oil ratio by the resistance factor RF: Mpn=M10/RF...........(3) where M,-, = mobility ratio of polymer solution to oil (dimensionless). This simplified presentation assumes no dilution of the polymer solution by connate water. Also, the presence of a connate water bank separating the polymer solution from the displaced oil is not considered. Displacement of oil by waterflooding is increasingly dominated by viscous forces as the viscosity of the oil displaced increases. When the oil mobility is less than that of the injected water, the oil-water interface is not a piston-like front.3,&apos; Instead, instabilities occur at the flood front in the form of viscous fingers which tend to penetrate the less mobile oil bank. The magnitude of these protrusions, or the degree of channeling, increases

Jan 1, 1967

The 72nd Regular Meeting of the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Institute convened at The Mark Conference Center, Lionshead Village, Vail, Colorado, and was in session at 10:00 a.m. Past President Roy Coulson, President Kemmerer Coal Company, Frontier, Wyoming, called the meeting to order. He introduced Robert W. Wilson, President of the Institute 1975-1976. Bob&apos;s biography follows: Born August 20, 1923 in Washington, D.C.; P-47 Fighter Pilot for three years with the U.S. Air Corps, flying 101 missions, Discharged October 1945; Married Barbara J. Polley August 1945 in Golden, Colorado; Moved to Colorado in 1948; Parents of two sons, Alan born in 1948 and Russell (deceased); Now residents of Conifer, Colorado and planning retirement on ranch property in Santa Rita, New Mexico; His education consists of Elementary and High School in Arlington, Va.; Two years at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; B.S. in Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 1948; Business-Salesman for K&P, Inc. since 1949, President and Owner since 1968; Representatives for T. J. Gundlach Co., Johnson-March Corp., Ramsey Engineering Co., Omni-Lift, Smoot Company, Sweco, Inc. and FMC-Syntron; Member, RMCMI since 1957, Served as Registration Chairman, Reservation Chairman, Member of the Executive Board and Vice President for Colorado; Member, Society Mining Engineers (AIME), Colorado Mining Association, New Mexico Mining Association, Industries for Jefferson County, and Denver Coal Club.

Jan 1, 1976

By Loughnan FC

There are some thirteen laboratories in Australia in which coal petrological work is carried out on a consistent and routine basis. Applied coal petrological research is conducted by several institutions in different disciplines which can be grouped into four main categories:

Jan 1, 1989

By Geoff Blight

Jan 1, 1985