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By Secretary of the Interior

"INTRODUCTION The Bureau of Mines Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program again forged ahead during 1952, and important technical advances led the way to improved methods of converting coal and oil shale into liquid fuels. Marking the eighth year of activities under this program, the pact 32 months brought a new domestic industry nearer realization.The increasing demand for gasoline and oil and the rising cost of finding new petroleum, coupled with America's growing dependence on imports and the unsettled international situation, have continued to emphasize the importance of the Bureau's Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program. Oil, the indispensable material of wartime, likewise has critical importance in peacetime, touching as it does the life of every individual. Supplementing petroleum with synthetic liquid fuels will not only conserve this Nation's petroleum reserves but also will bring into greater use its tremendous reserves of coal, as well as the vast deposits of oil shale for which no other practical use has yet been found.The Bureau of Mines Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program is one of the most important and far-reaching of the Government's research projects. Through development of commercial synthetic liquid fuels, the United States can obtain oil products from its great inland reserves of coal and oil shale to supplement petroleum in any quantity that may be necessary, consistent with economic and other requirements, such as national defense. The use of raw materials from such deposits would be of highest importance in wartime, when shipping lanes are menaced by the enemy. The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program of the Bureau of Mines and research efforts of industry have advanced. American technology to the point where it is now possible to begin the design and construction of prototype plants. Certainly, significant improvements will be made as the program continues, but this prospect in no way alters the fact that the start of prototype plants should be encouraged. These plants, as the first step in the development of a synthetic fuels industry, would serve a threefold purpose:"

Jan 1, 1953

By N. A. White

Whereas the ultimate world supply of energy minerals-defined as fossil fuels and fissile materials - is controlled by geological factors, the actual supply at any particular time is controlled by economic feasibility, technological innovations and /or political decisions. This paper identifies and discusses the principal uncertainties surrounding the international availability of energy minerals from now until the end of the century. A brief comparison is also made between energy and non-energy minerals. Genuine shortage s of energy minerals are now of a very long-term nature, whereas artificial ones may occur at any time and have a serious effect on the world economy due to the dependence of most OECD countries on imports of energy mineral . This paper argues that events over the last decade, such as the demand for a New International Economic Order, the OPEC increase in crude oil prices and the growing international lobby on environmental issues especially relating to nuclear safety - will progressively lead to a major, long-lasting transformation of the energy scene world wide. This transformation will encompass demand, in terms of conservation and efficiency, the supply mix of the various energy minerals , the supply system and the structure of the different energy industries . It is already affecting the role of governments and reaching into the question of national sovereignty both of developed countries, such as the U.K., Norway and Australia, and the developing countries, thereby making energy minerals a key area of international relations.

Jan 1, 1978

By W. R. Barclay

IN MY general contact with industry I have become more and more impressed with the need for the closest possible co-operation between engineers and metallurgists, and particularly with the need for appreciation of the work that each group is doing to assist the other. Also, I am convinced that from time to time it. is vitally important to a true perspective of human progress in all its branches, and certainly a salutary corrective of undue optimism and pessimism to endeavor to carry the mind hack over certain periods in the advance of technical knowledge, and form some kind of broad estimate of what has been accomplished in the application of science to industry in the fields with which we, as individuals or groups, may for the time being be concerned. We cannot without some appreciable mental effort realize what our forerunners have dine For us. If the young engineer or metallurgist entering industry today could be suddenly transported to a quarter of a century ago, and be compelled to work with the materials then available and within the limitations of knowledge then attained, he would, on his return to present-day life, have a much greater appreciation of what has been accomplished before lie arrived on the scene, and, what is even more important, a far more acute sense of its inherent value to his profession. I propose here merely to indulge in a general summary of the subject of improved engineering metals and alloys rather than in details, and to deal exclusively with developments within my own experience.

Jan 1, 1938

By Harold L. Gibson, David H. Watkinson

"Volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits of the Noranda Camp cur throughout the Noranda Shield Volcano but are concentrated and along the margins of the Noranda Cauldron. The deposits are realized along synvolcanic faults that also accommodated subsince and controlled the location of eruptive centres. Deposits within e 3 000 m thick Mine Sequence formed during a period of active volcanism and subsidence coinciding with the onset of two cauldron subsidence cycles. The Noranda Cauldron was a restricted site of 10malously high heat flow and structural permeability that favoured e development of a high-temperature hydrothermal system. Metals may have been derived from leaching of aquifer rocks by convecting a water or directly from a shallow underlying magma chamber, now presented by the Plavrian Pluton, that was at its highest position !thin the crust during cauldron subsidence. The deposits formed rough a combination of sulphide precipitation from exhaled fluid td replacement at and below the seafloor in a manner analogous to ose on the modern seafloor.RESUMESi les dépôts de sulfures massifs volcano gènes du camp minier de ~uyn-Noranda sont présents dans les différentes parties du volcanluclier de Noranda, ils se trouvent concentres toutefois, en plus ·and nombre, sur le pourtour de la caldeira (cauldron) de Noranda. ~s dépôts sont localises le long des failles synvolcaniques qui ont cilite la subsidence et contrôle la position des centres d’éruption.~dépôts situes dans la séquence des mines (3 000 m d’épaisseur) sont formes durant un épisode d' activité volcanique et de subsiden qui coïncide avec l' amorce de deux cycles d' affaissement de la rldera (cauldron) de Noranda. Celle-ci Jut le site exclusif d’unflux : chaleur anormalement élevé et d’une perméabilité d’origine cucturale qui ont favorise le développement d’un système hydrothermal a haute température. Les métaux proviennent soit directement d’une chambre magmatique situee afaible profondeur, so it d’un lessivage des roches de l’aquifère par l’eau de mer circulant par convection. Cette chambre magmatique, représentée maintenant par le pluton de Flavrian, se trouvait à son niveau le plus élevé dans la croute au moment de l’affaissement de la caldeira (cauldron). Les dépôts se sont constitués par un mecanisme combinant remplacement et précipitation de sulfures à partir des fluides exhalatifs, au niveau ou au-dessous du plancher océanique, de la même manière que se forment de nos jours, les dépôts de sulfures massifs au fond des océans."

Jan 1, 1990

By Gordon R. Sima

The contract is concerned with feasibility studies, design and fabrication of a group of prototype hand-held test instruments and machine-mounted test instruments for measurement of electrical shock hazards of mining machines. An instrument for use in open pit mining machine ground wire verification was proposed, developed, built, and tested. This report presents the design and operational theory of the open pit instrument as well as information on the program to improve the original prototype hand-held machine-mounted test instruments.

Jan 1, 1977

By R. C. A. Thurston

AT A FATIGUE SESSION organised by the A.S.T.M. in 1949, R. E. Peterson presented a brief introductory paper ( 1) in which lie referred to a discussion on the fatigue of metals which took place in England in 1849, and then proceeded to review some of the subsequent researches concerning the mechanism of fatigue. In the course of the review, he discussed metallograpl1ic studies with single crystals and polycrystalline materials, studies with X-ray methods, and the application of the electron microscope. During that hundred-year period considerable progress was made toward a better under-standing of the nature of fatigue, although it is probable that even greater attention was directed to the more practical aspects of the problem, such as the effects of notches, temperature, corrosion, surface treatment, residual stresses, and so on. Since then there has been an appreciable acceleration in the tempo of the fundamental work, partly influenced by the rapid development of the theory of dislocations, with the result that our knowledge of the mechanism of slip, the initiation of fatigue cracks, and their subsequent propagation, has still further advanced, although it is by no means complete as yet. The present paper is an attempt to out-line the more recent developments in these basic studies, to correlate them when possible, and to draw attention to those directions in which research might profitably be pursued.

Jan 1, 1957

By M. R. Geer, H. F. Yancey

Four coals were treated in the Humphreys spiral concentrator, and the products were examined by float-and-sink and screen-sizing tests to determine fundamental performance characteristics. The efficiency of the separation between coal and impurity was shown to be influenced greatly by particle size.

Jan 1, 1950

The lignite deposits of the United States represent a huge potential source of fuel for power generation. It has been estimated that lignite constitutes about 24 percent of the remaining National reserves of solid fuel on a tonnage basis and about 15 percent of the reserves on a B.t.u. basis. (See sec. 3, part 1.) The major portion of these reserves is in North Dakota. Lignite has been used locally for domestic heating since the first settlers burned it at forts and fur-trading posts as early as 1855. Some of the first studies of the use of lignite in steam boilers were conducted by the Federal Bureau of Mines from 1910 to 1920 (15, 19) 1/ However, the commercial utilization of lignite as fuel for producing power developed slowly. Not until about 1925 was any really successful lignite industrial fuel-blaming equipment developed. Since then the commercial use of lignite as a fuel for producing power has been increasing steadily.

Jan 1, 1954

By M. D. Loy

In addition to products available from private vendors, many useful programs are developed at universities - in fact, many of these programs led the way to commercial development. Other projects are assigned to consultants with backgrounds in system design and mining. Both types of development have led to programs that can be acquired for the cost of a tape or disk. This paper highlights several underground mining packages. These programs consist of: ? USBM model-developed by the United States Bureau of nines. ? PSU model-developed by Pennsylvania State University. ? VPI model-developed by Virginia Polytechnical Institute and State University. ? NUS model-developed by NUS Corp.

Jan 1, 1987

By Sidney Katell

This report, covering the period January 1965 through December 1965, is a continuation of a series that began with the publication of Information Circular 7516 in October 1949. It is the seventh in a series of reports prepared in cooperation with the American Association of Cost Engineers. The abstracted articles are concerned with all phases of cost engineering in the field of chemical and petroleum plants and related subjects. They are From the following sources:

Jan 1, 1966

By BUREAU OF MINES

In 1948 the United States became a net importer of oil. Coupled with an unpre- cedented domestic production of 5,900,000 barrels daily, imports approximating 500,000 barrels made available a total supply of 6,400,000 barrels a day. Thus, by herculean effort, the oil industry was able to meet an extraordinary demand at home and, in addition, to ship abroad almost 400,00 barrels daily of petroleum and products. The country's oil position now differs greatly from that prevailing at the be- ginning of World War II. Then, actual oil production averaged about 4 million bar- rels a day, and productive capacity probably was greater than 5 million barrels a day. As the demand of the military and industrial machine grew with the rising tempo of the drive toward victory, the United States not only met its own needs but pro- duced about two-thirds of the total oil requirements of the Allied Nations, excluding Russia. As a people, we can be deeply grateful that the Nation's petroleum resources were adequate and sufficiently developed to support such a tremendous effort. Even in those critical hours when immediate needs were the paramount issues, a prudent Congress paused to contemplate the importance of an assured long-term supply of liquid fuels. From these deliberations came the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act of 1944, which authorized research and development work on new sources of oil coal, oil shale, and agricultural and forestry products. ce World War II, a civilian demand for 6 million barrels of petroleum prod- ucts has become the order of the day every day. By drilling as many as 39,000 new wells a year, the production rate has been increased enough to meet domestic require- ments by a bare margin. Some imports were necessary, however, to fill both domestic and foreign demands, and these doubtless will increase. Is this policy of exploration within the United States and the development of oil in foreign countries adequate insurance for the fulfillment of our future national needs? This question has two aspects one purely civilian and economic in character and the other significant from the standpoint of our national defense. There are now approximately 4,000 producing oil fields in this country. At first thought, it would appear that production could decline in a considerable number of these fields without materially affecting the over-all daily output. However, 48 percent of the oil comes from only 111 major fields which contain 50 percent of the total proved domestic reserves. It is apparent, then, that the flow from large fields - having proved reserves of 100 million barrels or more each must be sustained if daily production is to be kept at the present levels. Essentially, this means that new major fields must be discovered about as rapidly or perhaps more rapidly than the older ones lose productive capacity. From 1940 through 1947, only eight major fields with estimated reserves of more than 100 million barrels each, were discovered and proved - an average of one such field a year. The total estimated reserve of these eight fields was less than 1 year's supply at the present rate of use. As drilling continues, some existing fields ultimately will prove reserves larger than those now known. Without a pronounced increase in the num- ber of major discoveries, however, the prospects for increasing our present productive level are not encouraging. Any gap that appears between domestic productive capacity and demand could be filled with supplies from proved oil resources abroad. Assuming cheap pipe-line and tanker transportation to the United States, freedom from exorbitant taxes and charges

Jan 1, 1949

By Edmund J. Cardoza

WELCOME TO THE DEEP FOUNDATIONS INSTITUTE 26TH ANNUAL CONFERENCE AND WELCOME ESPECIALLY TO THIS SEMINAR ON NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF DRILLED SHAFTS, PRESENTED BY MEMBERS OF THE DFI DRILLED SHAFT COMMITTEE. MY NAME IS ED CARDOZA; I AM A VICE PRESIDENT WITH THE MILLGARD CORPORATION, A DRILLED SHAFT CONSTRUCTOR FOCUSING PRIMARLY IN THE EASTERN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES.

Jan 1, 2001

By M. C. Makepeace

"It is the objective of designed experiments to obtain more information for less material and process cost than can be obtained by traditional experimentation. In this paper, the fundamental concepts on which the statistical design of experiments is based are briefly re-viewed according to the following outline: The Experiment The Design The Analysis Two simple 2"" factorial experiments are presented as examples."

Jan 1, 1967

By Charles W. Merrill

THE INDUSTRIAL strength and the security of the United States require an adequate, dependable, and continuing supply of raw materials, of which minerals constitute an indispensable segment. With an expanding population, a rising standard of living, and the instability inherent in a constantly changing international situation, the mineral supply outlook is a major national concern. Structures, roads, and machines are built largely of mineral products; the energy to heat the structures and to power the machines is derived mostly from minerals; agricultural out-put is sustained with the aid of mineral fertilizers; and the Nation's economic and military security both are founded ultimately on its ability to obtain and utilize essential metals, nonmetals, and mineral fuels.

Jan 1, 1965

By Scott A. Walker, Gabriel J. Alcantar, Brian Zuckerman, Ramin Golesorkhi

"The stadium development consists of construction of a 68,500-seat, open-air NFL football stadium for the San Francisco 49ers. The main structure will consist of a 7-story above grade steel structure supported by over 3,000 piles. Berkel and Company Contractors, Inc. (Berkel) was selected as the design-build pile contractor who used their auger pressure grouted displacement (APGD) piles for this project. During an indicator pile installation and pile load test program, fifteen piles were tested to develop installation criteria to support demands of 150kips tension and 180 kips compression. Following the indicator pile program Berkel installed 3088 piles in 30 working days. Throughout pile installation data were collected with an automated data acquisition system (DAS). During pile installation field engineers from Treadwell & Rollo observed the pile installation as well as the real-time data from the DAS. Strategic staging and pre-production planning by Berkel along with consistent collaboration with the design team created an atmosphere for a successful and on schedule project completion.IntroductionThe new San Francisco 49ers Stadium in Santa Clara, California will be a 68,500-seat facility, a rendering of which is shown in Figure 1. The main structure will consist of a 7-story above grade steel structure supported by more than 3,000 piles. The north, east and south portions of the stadium are designed as an open seating bowl, while the western portion includes open seating at the lower levels and seven-story tower which houses over 150 suites.The stadium project includes the stadium structure, as well as elevated open pedestrian walkways, commercial community space, and three new pedestrian bridges spanning a nearby by creek. Sustainable designs and innovations such as a green roof, photovoltaic panels, a ground source geothermal system, stadium-wide Wi-Fi capability, and access to public transit are provided throughout the project. The stadium is designed as an open, light, and airy structure and is surrounded by an existing amusement park, office buildings, the Santa Clara Convention Center, and the training facility of the 49ers."

Jan 1, 2015

By John P. Capp

After World War II the Bureau of Mines studied methods of producing synthesis gas including a plan to gasify coal in place. Consequently, under a cooperative agreement with the Alabama Power Co., Bureau engineers directed a series of experiments that were carried out on the property of the Alabama Power Co. at Gorgas, Ala. The purpose of underground gasification of coal, regardless of method used, is to obtain the energy contained in the fuel for use on the surface, without mining in the usual sense of the term. Underground gasification can be described as (1) a process where coal, in place, is consumed by partial combustion with air, oxygen, steam, or any combination of these to produce a low calorific value gas (80 to 300 Btu per cu ft) or (2) a complete combustion process in which air is used to produce a gas containing carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and considerable thermal energy.

Jan 1, 1963

By John P. Capp

After World War II the Bureau of Mines studied methods of producing synthesis gas including a plan to gasify coal in place. Consequently, under a cooperative agreement with the Alabama Power Co., Bureau engineers directed a series of experiments that were carried out on the property of the Alabama Power Co. at Gorgas, Ala. The purpose of underground gasification of coal, regardless of method used, is to obtain the energy contained in the fuel for use on the surface, without mining in the usual sense of the term. Underground gasification can be described as (1) a process where coal, in place, is consumed by partial combustion with air, oxygen, steam, or any combination of these to produce a low calorific value gas (80 to 300 Btu per cu ft) or (2) a complete combustion process in which air is used to produce a gas containing carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and considerable thermal energy.

Jan 1, 1963

Maintaining and improving the economics of open pit mining in the future requires understanding of the characteristics of open pit mining that are different to other mining or business activities, designing mines in the first place to be less susceptible to changes in these important characteristics, and adopting strategies which yield reliable returns despite unforeseen change. Planning and production personnel require guidelines and performance standards that are based on sound economics not solely on production criteria. The guidelines adopted for long-term implementation must assume a declining price for mineral products along with declining real costs, with research efforts directed at development of both evolutionary and revolutionary ideas aimed at implementation. Decision-making must focus on risk and probability criteria rather than just simple return-on-investment criteria, and the approach for management of personnel must support the higher level of communication essential for fast decision-making in the new environment of continual change.

Jan 1, 1992

By D Kavanagh, C Michaud

"A continuous improvement initiative was identified at Kalgoorlie Consolidated Gold Mine’s (KCGM) Fimiston open pit with the goal of reducing bench turnover time and increasing shovel digability by improving fragmentation around previously mined-out stopes. In the past, a higher number of blasts than normal would be required to get through a single excavation area where stopes were present. This is due to the limited reach capability of the drilling fleet from safe ground into restricted areas requiring the drilling of the shot to be done in a staged manner. In addition, the holes that were able to be drilled in the area did not remain open long enough to be loaded with explosives as a result of the poor ground conditions surrounding the stopes.Over the last 18 months, KCGM has trialled drill additives to improve blasthole stability, as well as introducing a remote drill rig allowing holes to be drilled in areas previously inaccessible by manned drill rigs. This has resulted in improved penetration rates in bad ground conditions, improved drill hole stability, better shovel digability, and an overall reduction in bench turnover of at least ten days on the benchmarked 126 days average per bench. KCGM is now in the final stages of the improvement project with the installation of a drill monitoring system on the fleet to allow live data transfer back to the office for analysis, as well as providing improved accuracy on drill holes in restricted areas.Citation:Michaud, C and Kavanagh, D, 2016. Reducing Bench Turnover Time and Improving Shovel Digability, in Proceedings Ninth AusIMM Open Pit Operators' Conference 2016, pp 19–27 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Nov 15, 2016

By Krishna P. Sinha

An investigation was made to determine the creep behavior of oil shale at elevated temperatures. During the first phase of the investigation, work done on creep behavior of geologic materials was reviewed and triaxial creep tests on oil shale were planned. Tests at temperatures up to 250°C and axial stress up to 3000 psi were conducted at no confinement and at confining pressures equal to 1/3 and 2/3 of axial stress. Wide variations in the elastic properties as well as creep characteristics are exhibited. Creep deformation is more pronounced at elevated temperature but no definite quantitative remarks can be made regarding effect of grade of oil shale due to wide scatter and limited number of data paints. Primary creep can be described by a power law. Secondary creep seems to be an experimental function of deviatoric stress. Teritary creep was not observed within the test duration (24 hours in most tests).

Jan 1, 1983