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By I. Jones

Geologists, engineers, technicians and surveyors have successfully utilized technical software in the mining industry for over 30 years. Software for processing survey, geology, mine engineering and planning information make these functions more efficient by automating repetitive tasks and reducing data processing errors. While these systems have been improved incrementally overtime, new systems that represent giant leaps in technology have been introduced to help mining operations increase productivity and reduce costs. However, their widespread use within the industry has left individual companies without a competitive advantage. Additionally, the ability of these applications to provide the productivity improvements required in today’s uncertain market conditions has since peaked. The next wave of technology—integration of independent software applications—is just starting to emerge and will have a significant effect on the productivity of mining operations. To reap the productivity gains required to remain competitive, mining companies must exploit the collective knowledge and experience of every employee in the organization. Integration of independent software application allows companies to leverage information from all activities, enabling staff to make better decisions to improve productivity. This paper outlines the importance of integration as productivity enabler. Key performance indicators, strategic mine planning, resources management and mine-to-mill integration are discussed as processes that enable productivity. The Gemcom Enterprise Mining System (GEMS)is introduced as the industry’s first integrated solution that enables these productive processes. The paper concludes with a comment on the level of change required to realize the benefits of integration.

Jan 1, 2003

By R. V. Ramani, K. Bode

"IntroductionThe theory of particle dispersion and deposition in turbulent flow is important to many fields of science and engineering. Dispersion has been studied in some detail since the early fifties (Taylor, 1954; Fischer, 1967; Osipov and Grekov, 1968; Skobunov, 1970 and 1973; Klebanov and Martynyuk, 1974). A broad research effort has also been underway in studying the mechanics of dry particle deposition. Friedlander and Johnstone (1957) proposed a theory, according to which particle deposition from vertical pipe flow could be described by an eddy diffusion transport followed by a final flight to the surface. There have been numerous revisions and additions to this original theory (Owen, 1960; Liu and Agarwal, 1974; Liu and llori, 1974; El-Shobokshy and Ismael, 1980) The mining process essentially consists of breaking in situ materials and transporting them out of the mine. An inherent characteristic of this process is the generation of fine particles. Fine airborne particulates are associated with a number of threats to the health of the miners; fine coal dust can also result in mine-wide catastrophic incidents such as dust explosions. For these and other reasons, it is important to understand the behaviour of airborne dust particulates, particularly their generation, entrainment, transport, dispersion, and deposition in the mine environment for their control.Mine related studies on dispersion and deposition have been few. Yet, several studies of gas and dust dispersion, diesel exhaust contamination, and methane ingress into mine workings have recognized the need for developing reliable parameter values for fundamental understanding of the phenomena (Da""Yes and Slack, 1954; Hodkinson, 1957; Hodkinson and leach, 1958; Mass and Wildschut, 1966; Airey, 1969; Courtney et al., 1986; Stefanko, Ramani, and Thakur, 1974; Stefanko, Ramani and Kenzy, 1977; Bhaskar, 1987, Bhaskar and Ramani 1990; Qin and Ramani, 1989; Shankar and Ramani, 1990)."

Dec 1, 1995

By B. N. Church, J. J. Barakso, A. F. Bowman

"An evaluation of mineralization in the Goosly- Owen Lake area of central British Columbia is the result of a comprehensive geochemical study of rock samples obtained from a regional geological survey. The dispersion of metals in country rocks about a line of Tertiary intrusions suggests that these igneous bodies may be genetically related to known sulphide replacements, disseminations and vein deposits. The geochemical investigation is based on the determination of 12 elements from samples gathered from more than 800 scattered field stations. To assist processing and interpretation, the data are subjected to a variety of statistical procedures, including correlation of the elements, factor analysis, clustm• analysis and computer contouring of the elements. Some practical applications of rock geochemistry in regional exploration are indicated."

Jan 1, 1976

By J. L. Eakin, J. P. Powell

"The increased costs of exploration and drilling of new oil fields and the continued success of water flooding in nearly depleted oil fields have created a demand for information on the results obtained from individual projects. The Bureau of Mines has published several reports concerning water-flood activity in the Midcontinent area and at the request of the industry has continued to collect and disseminate this information. This report was written in response to these requests. It describes in detail the water-flooding projects in Anderson, Franklin, Linn, and Miami Counties, Kans., and includes methods of water treating and the results obtained. The production histories of each county and many water-flood projects are shown graphically from the date of the first development. Maps of most of the major projects, showing their status as of January 1, 1953 are presented also.The practice of injecting water to stimulate oil production was legalized in Kansas in 1935, and the first water-flooding project authorized in this four-county area was initiated by the Texas Co. in December 1935 in Linn County. Forty-nine projects2/ initiated in the area to January 1953 are estimated to have recovered approximately 10 million barrels of oil that would not have been produced by methods used previously. About 7,900 productive acres had been, or are, flooded by these projects, and approximately 136 million barrels of water had been injected.These four counties in the eastern Kansas shallow production area3/ were an important factor in the early history of the Kansas oil and gas industry. This position has been maintained from the very beginning through the early period of vacuum and air injection and into the era of water flooding. The location of the area and the relative position of the four counties and water-flooding areas in each are shown in figure 1.The first drilling for oil in this area in 1860 resulted from investigations of the existence, and use by the Indians, of so-called tar or oil springs. The first wells drilled were nonproductive, and the impending Civil War caused the search for oil to be discontinued. In 1884 a few shallow oil wells were drilled near Paola, and completion of several gas wells near that city led to subsequent drilling of an oil well, which was completed in June 1885, having an initial flow of 10 barrels of oil daily.In 1904 the original Paola gas field became a good oil-producing field. In 1905 the Rantoul field in Franklin and Miami Counties was opened; and drilling activity spread throughout the adjoining area, resulting in development of several shallow oil pools in Linn and Anderson Counties. The first ""shoestring"" pool in eastern Kansas to produce oil was probably the Paola or Pressonville shoestring, which was discovered in 1917. The rate of oil production from the area declined until 1919, when the Centerville shoestring pool was discovered. Discovery of the Colony gas field in 1921 was followed within a few months by drilling of the Garnett and Garnett and bush City shoestring pools. The Schermerhorn pool (now part of the Centerville field) s discovered in 1927, and the Kincaid shoestring pool was first drilled in 1931. The oil-production histories of the individual counties are discussed separately."

Jun 1, 1953

By Charles T. Steuart

The Arkansas Novaculite of Devonian and Mississippian age is the most distinctive formation in the central Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas from the standpoint of both topography and lithology. The formation typically forms precipitous, narrow ridges (hogbacks) which reflect the steepness of dip and the resistance and thickness of the rock units. The Arkansas Novaculite varies from less than 200 feet thick in the north to locally over 800 feet thick in the south and outcrops over an east-west distance of 360 km (200 miles) in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma. Most of the rocks of the formation are highly siliceous with novaculite predominating, and lesser quantities of chert, siliceous shale, conglomerate and rarely sandstone. Novaculite is commonly defined as a homogeneous mostly white rock, translucent on thin edges with a dull to waxy luster and composed almost entirely of microcrystalline quartz. The word novaculite comes from the Latin word novacula, meaning razor hone. This term was first used by Richard Kirwan in his mineralogy text of 1784. The origin of novaculite remains controversial but we believe it was a primary silica derived mostly from the alteration of submarine volcanic-rich materials, with numerous fine biogenic components and some minor clastics (derived mostly from foreland facies via turbidity currents) and deposited as an amorphous siliceous ooze in the deep Ouachita trough. It was subsequently converted to microcrystalline quartz during diagenesis by the compaction of the overlying rocks and the intense Late Paleozoic Ouachita Mountain tectonism. In the central and southern portions of the region three divisions of the formation have been defined: a Lower Division predominantly of light-colored novaculite; a Middle Division of interbedded dark chert and shale; and an Upper Division of massive often calcareous novaculite. In the northern exposures the formation is thinner and contains more black chert and shale, chert-shale conglom¬erate, sandstone and less novaculite. The massive novaculite of the Upper and Lower Divisions is a source of high purity silica (99+%). Indians were the first to use novaculite. They made their various tools and hunting implements from the weathered broken rock until they learned the quarrying techniques. The first white men in the area recognized the use of novaculite for sharpening their tools and knives: previously whetstones were obtained in small quantities from Europe. To this day whetstone is quarried mostly in areas which the Indians and possibly the Spanish previously worked. Some of the current mining practices have changed very little from those of the early quarryman. In areas where the novaculite of the Upper Division is poorly cemented, this friable tripolitic material has found applications in such uses as an abrasive, as a filler or extender in paints, plastics and other purposes. Some of the dense novaculite is suitable as a filler in fire bricks and also in plastics. Because some of it has the tendency to decrepitate when heated not all novaculite can be used for these applications. Several quarry operators are crushing novaculite for road, concrete, and other aggregate. This use was formerly rather limited due to the abrasiveness of the novaculite on crushing and screening equipment. Further potential uses of novaculite are speculative but include application of high purity silica in the production of silicon metal for solar cells, seed or "growing", and fusing quartz for electronics.

Jan 1, 1985

By A. A. Brant

Mining men, quite as exploration minded as petroleum interests, are in the position where most of the exposed crustal portions of the earth have been examined, where the demand for metals is high and likely to continue so, and yet where, perhaps, the tools fail for the economic exploration of many of the possible mineral areas more deeply covered with drift, alluvium, and later formations. At the same time the incentive exists to create acceptable substitutes for many of the duties of metal. The problem of the economic exploration of possible mineral-bearing areas is hence a vital one. In oil exploration, the absence of surface or shallow occurrences and the high cost of test drilling has led to the intensive study of geophysical techniques. Hence the development of the seismic method with its high certainty factor and its adaptability to standardized procedure.

Jan 1, 1949

A decision by joint-venture partners Anglo American, Gencor, and the Industrial Development Corporation to proceed with the expansion of the Columbus Stainless Steel plant in Middelburg will contribute significantly towards the economic growth that South Africa needs so desperately. The expanded facility, expected to come on-line in 1995, will be the largest single-plant producer of stainless steel in the world, and the company will rank sixth overall in world production.

Jan 1, 1993

By K. L. Paciorek

Organic materials utilized as cable Jacketing, cable insulation, standoffs, insulating boards and potting compositions were identified and d literature survey performed to obtain the required thermal oxidative and moist tracking data. Thirty representative compositions were procured and subjected to thermal and moist tracking evaluations. Tracking was found to invariably result in ignition or glow of the test specimen. Influence of parameters such as electrolyte strength and composition, temperature, conductor spacing, and electrode material were investigated. Volatile s produced by selected insulators on thermal oxidative and electrical stress were identified, quantitated, and their potential impairment action upon a current interrupter assessed.

Jan 1, 1980

Jan 1, 1985

By Alvin Kaufman

Following the gold discoveries of the late 1800's much was written regarding the vast mineral resources of Alaska, and much interest was aroused, and yet over the years little has been done to exploit those resources. Between 1906 and 1935 the Kennecott copper mines of the Copper River region were the keystone of the mineral economy (fig, 1). After the depletion of the Kennecott ore reserves and aided by the statutory rise in the price of gold, the yellow metal became the major mineral commodity. In recent years it has shared the honors with coal and sand and gravel. Although this trend should indicate the development of a stable, diversified mineral industry, yet the trend of production is downward. This report results from a study by the Federal Bureau of Mines to delineate the problems and to forecast the growth of the mineral industries in Alaska. The need for such a blueprint for the future was enhanced by the population explosion in the United States and the consequent eventual need for additional living space, as well as the current interest in new areas, and the necessity to develop reserves of strategic minerals.

Jan 1, 1961

By A. C. Fieldner

ONE of the important functions of the Bureau of Mines is the, analysis of coal from every coal-mining State and Alaska. These analyses are being published for use of Government officials and the public. In connection with analytical data showing composition and quality of coals of the States, consumers, Producers, and the general public will be interested in a brief description of the geologic structure of the coal basins, typical mining conditions in the several districts, and the principal economic data of the industry. These publications have therefore heel) designed to include such features to present concisely the principal facts regarding occurrence, reserves, duality, characteristics, production, and uses of coals of each producing State.

Jan 1, 1952

By Carlton E. Brown

In 1935 , Brown and Yant / described a microprojector ( microscopic arrangement for projecting images on a screen ) for use in counting and measuring the size of dust particles in Owens - jet dust - counter and simila dry samples of dust collected from the air . In 1938 Brown and others , described a modification of this microprojector that could be used also in counting dust in impinger samples . Microprojectors of this second type have been set up by many mining companies and others and have been made commercially available . Hamly and Pullen5/ described a modification of this microprojector for use in making rapid comparative estimates on konimeter samples and other determinations . This report contains information on still another modification named the "midget microprojector " because of its small size .

Sep 1, 1944

By Fathi Habashi

"On August 3, 1888, German Patent No. 43977 entitled ""A Process for the Production of Aluminum Hydroxide"" was issued*. The discovery which led to the patent was made by the Austrian chemist Karl Josef Bayer (1847-1904) (Fig. 1) who was at that time in Russia, and the process became known as the Bayer Process in his honour(1)(2)- The process imediately achieved industrial success, displacing the pyrometallurgical process that had been used until that time to produce alumina. The Bayer Process involved the pressure leaching of bauxite with NaOH solution to obtain sodium aluminate solution from which aluminum hydroxide was precipitated by seeding. Today bauxite is not only the principal source of aluminum but also of gallium, both metals being effectively recovered by the Bayer Process. The purpose of this paper is to outline the historical background of this discovery and its importance to hydrometallurgy."

Jan 1, 1999

By M. J. Jackson

MIGRATOM is a third-generation PC-based computer program developed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines for geophysical tomography. Like its predecessors, BOMTOM and BOMCRATR, MIGRA TOM was developed to enable users to address a variety of mining-related problems by mathematically reconstructing the distribution of physical properties in a rock mass, using measurements of travel time or amplitude of wave energy propagated through the rock mass. Examples of applications include lithologic characterization, fracture detection, fluid monitoring, stress evaluation, and blast assessment. The resolution and accuracy of tomographic reconstructions generally depend very strongly on the geometry of source and receiver locations. In many practical applications, such as cross-borehole tomography, limited coverage results in nonunique reconstructions. MIGRATOM follows the precedent of BOMTOM and BOMCRATR in allowing the user to constrain the inversion, in order to reduce the nonuniqueness problem. A new approach to application of constraints implemented in MIGRATOM is based on fuzzy logic techniques. Refraction of wave energy is modeled in MIGRATOM using an approach based on Huygens' Principle. Propagation of a continuous wavefront is modeled as a constructive interference phenomenon, which obviates the shadow-zone problem that affects conventional ray-tracing calculations. MIGRATOM has been tested with both synthetic and field data sets.

Jan 1, 2010

By H. E. Dresch

This report summarizes the work accomplished under Bureau of Mines contract H0188068. The contract required design and construction of a high voltage (7.5 KV) explosion proof cable connector for use on underground coal mine drag cables. A connector was constructed with elastomeric phase insulators that provide insulation shielding throughout the connector length. Connector housing was made of flame resist-ant cast poly urethane with no exposed metal components. Electrical and mechanical testing of the completed coupler resulted in satisfactorily meeting most of the design testing requirements.

Jan 1, 1981

By Richard L. Bullock

Believe it or not, mine evaluation and feasibility studies are as old as the industry itself. In the first recorded writing on mining by Agricola (1556), he gave several clues as what to look for in evaluating a mine, to determine if it was economically feasible. Below is the guidance from Agricola, with my interpretation of what he would include today. Now a miner, before he begins to mine the orebodies must consider seven things, namely: ? The situation (the geography/topography). ? The conditions (the geologic/mineralogic and mining conditions). ? The water (availability, hydrology and ownership). ? The roads (plus the railroads, power lines, all other infrastructure). ? The climate (the weather-rainfall/environment). ? The right of ownership (the land and legal entitlement). ? The neighbors (the social environmental concerns of the area). It is amazing how much of his guidance has not changed in 455 years. Yet Agricola gives no guidance on determining the correct cost, or determining the correct commodity pricing. But he does give a few words of caution on the related ethics involved on buying mineral properties: ?A prudent owner, before he buys shares, ought to go to the mine and carefully examine the nature of the vein, for it is very important that he should be on his guard lest fraudulent sellers of shares should deceive him.? Three hundred years later (1866), to further amplify this point, in the most famous thing that Mark Twain never said, as an introduction to a lecturer to an audience of gold-miners at Red Dog, CA, the famed author/humorist allegedly described a mine as ?a hole in the ground owned by a liar? (Farrar & Rinehart, 1935). So, one might conclude that between these two dates, the mining industry did little to improve its reputation. Unfortunately, since Mark Twain allegedly made those remarks, we have not done near enough to gain accountability for the mineral industry.

Jan 1, 2011

By J King, T Hunter, R Coleman

"The industry that supports operations and new projects is suffering a rapid decline in the currently severely curtailed capital investment environment. This is evidenced by a decline in the number of skilled teams, who are now centred in fewer locations. Other features are an aging and retiring ‘Baby Boomer’ generation, coupled with a low uptake of new graduates and the uncertainty in predicting future capital expenditure programs and requirements. Combine this with a reluctance of cash-poor operations to modernise and adapt in an environment of low metal prices, and there is a real uncertainty in how service providers will meet industry needs as they evolve.The industry that supports operations and new projects is suffering a rapid decline in the currently severely curtailed capital investment environment. This is evidenced by a decline in the number of skilled teams, who are now centred in fewer locations. Other features are an aging and retiring ‘Baby Boomer’ generation, coupled with a low uptake of new graduates and the uncertainty in predicting future capital expenditure programs and requirements. Combine this with a reluctance of cash-poor operations to modernise and adapt in an environment of low metal prices, and there is a real uncertainty in how service providers will meet industry needs as they evolve.Trends amongst service providers will be put forward as well as developing options and alternatives. These embrace a whole gamut of agile alternatives in the areas of partnering, alliances, commercial and shared risk models and mutual innovations. These will be discussed with some case studies and suggested approaches.Particular emphasis will be upon brownfield expansions and upgrades which have emerged recently as a preferred lower capital and focused way to achieve best practical outcome at lowest cost. There are a number of specific features of such brownfields projects including the requirement for very close cooperation between the execution team, operators, maintenance and suppliers and a maximum usage of site resources and ingenuity. Often, required investment hurdle rates are high, downtime allowed is minimal and site resources usage is maximised. This requires mutual trust, good planning and high health, safety, environment and community (HSEC) standards and practice. In many ways the practices and skills needed are the exact opposite of the historical ‘big greenfields’ project with which the industry has been geared for more recently.Another developing area has been with innovative commercial models and practices. These have been as a direct result of the more challenging investment criteria being adopted and the relative hunger of service providers. It has become more common to look at these commercial/costing alternatives very early in the project cycle as an essential project tool and not just as a possible option. These commercial solutions cover such alternatives as leasing and rental, deferred payments, build–own–operate–transfer (BOOT) and build–own–operate (BOO), whole-of-mine preferred spares and maintenance terms, and aggressive performance targets with real assurance penalties. Once again this requires very close mutual dealings and trust, and sufficient time allocation compared to a conventional approach.Citation:Coleman, R, King, J and Hunter, T, 2016. Upgrades, Modernisations and Expansions... Where Will the Expertise, Capability and Skills Come from in the Future?, in Proceedings 13th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference 2016, pp 69–76 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Oct 10, 2016

By William H. Waggaman

CURTAILMENT of the mineral industry as a whole undoubtedly will follow world peace, but the output of certain minerals should pursue a course well above the average on any curve of probable output projected beyond the trends exhibited through 1939. Without speculating on industrial conditions in the pending recomversion period, demand for fluorspar should be greater than before the war because of these factors, introduced by or resulting directly from military necessity: (1) Discovery and development of new deposits. (2) Improved technology in benefication. (3) New and expanded uses for fluorspar and its derivatives. The steel industry has been and continues to be the greatest consumer of fluorspar, and it wag largely to meet the wartime needs for steel that the domestic fluorspar industry has been expanded so greatly. Not only were the search for and development of new deposits of this mineral considered esstinal but the marginal nature of some of the,c- domestic deposits made it necessary to improve mineral dressinc and processing techniques to utilize them

Jan 1, 1945

In terms of tunnelling the mining industry is generally thought of as the crude cousin of the civil construction industry. Mining has tended to concentrate on speed and flexibility rather than the high standards required in civil tunnelling. Historically this difference has been based on the belief that such high standards were not required by the mining industry, they would slow down the development of the project and as a result increase the costs and extend the time period between start up and a positive cashflow.For civil works the construction of a tunnel is the project, for mining the construction of declines, crosscuts and drives are merely the means of accessing the orebody so that the real work can begin û MINING. Extraction of ore is the core business of most mining companies û it is what pays the bills.Though most mining companies have the equipment, the people, the knowledge and the ability to excavate tunnels, in the past mining companies did not appear to put the same energy into their tunnelling operations as they put into improving their ore extraction operations. In the past decade this appears to have changed, many mining companies now realise how important the correct excavation of a decline is to the success of the overall mining operation. They began to recognise that there were cost benefits to be gained in using the correct development techniques without overly sacrificing the benefits of speed and flexibility.This recognition also coincided with the growth of underground contractors whose predominant work was primary development (declines and ore access crosscuts and drives). The contractors again had the same knowledge, the same people, and similar equipment but their focus was different from that of the mining company û the contractors were focused on the development of the mine, the excavation of declines, crosscuts and drives. These deliverables were the contractorsÆ core business û itÆs what paid the bills.

Jan 1, 1999

By L. W. Scott

This report presents an overview of explosionproof (X-P) enclosure research being conducted by the Bureau of Mines, This report emphasizes the increasing importance of research related to the safety con- siderations of X-P enclosures used in underground coal mines. Selected topics are included that summarize results of research in the areas of electrical clearances, reliability of enclosures with windows, safety factors in X-P enclosures, potting materials, performance tests for X-P enclosures, protection against high-voltage explosions, and innovative X-P devices.

Jan 1, 1985