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Education for the Mineral Industry in Australia developed in an uncoordinated but effective fashion till the mid 1960's, with recognised quality in graduates, with output matching demand, and with industry needs being fulfilled. Then in the space of a further 20 years, as company structures expanded, as the number, complexity, and costs of mineral projects escalated, as educational facilities, costs and politics increased, as community perceptions and aspirations changed, as government control of minerals and education increased, and as mineral sales cycles and markets fluctuated widely, the very fabric of Australian Mineral Education fell in tatters. Extractive Metallurgy Education suffered most in this collapse, and no compre- hensive remedies have been initiated. We are all the losers. In the 1990's, the extraction of Australian minerals and metals will increase in international significance, and the education of Extractive Metallurgists must meet this need. After examining the current situation, a series of management strategies are proposed to enable Extractive Metallurgical Education to survive and prosper in the next two decades and beyond. These strategic proposals involve industry, the government, the educational bodies, and individuals, in a range of short and long term objectives, policies, and actions.

Jan 1, 1984

In this paper, the recovery of copper minerals and molybdenite in the rougher/scavenger banks of two separate mineral processing plants is compared with recovery in laboratory (batch) cells. A number of metallurgical surveys were conducted in two plants treating porphyry copper and molyb-denum ore. Batch flotation tests were performed on plant conditioned flotation feed slurry, in parallel with the plant metallurgical surveys. The effect of flotation feed density on recovery of copper minerals and molybdenite in the plant and batch laboratory cells was investigated. Changes in flotation pulp density had little effect on copper mineral recovery, in both plant and laboratory cells. The ultimate recovery for molybdenite, on the contrary, increased considerably when the pulp density was reduced, both at plant and laboratory scale. Recovery of copper minerals in the plant and laboratory cells was comparable, while molybdenite recovery in laboratory flotation cells was 3%~13% higher than in plant. It is hypothesised that the flotation rate of molybdenite is sensitive to cell hydrodynamic conditions (i.e. local turbulent energy dissipation) more than the flotation rate of copper. The flotation behaviour of molybdenite particles is likely to be predominantly controlled by bubble-particle collision frequency, which is enhanced in high local turbulent energy dissipation environment. For chalcopyrite, the flotation recovery is mostly determined by attachment and stability efficiencies. An increase in local turbulent energy dissipation, while increasing collision efficiency, may negatively impact on attachment and stability efficiencies. The outcomes may have a considerable impact on increasing molybdenite recovery from porphyry ores.

Jan 1, 2014

By Xinzhong Deng, Naixiang Feng, Kejia Liu, Jianping Peng, Yaowu Wang, Yi Zhang, Yuezhong Di

Low-carbon Ti2O3 was prepared by carbonthermal reduction of the mixture of titanium dioxide and activated carbon at vacuum condition. The kinetics and phase evolution of Ti2O3 formation process were investigated through X-ray diffraction and gravimetric analysis. The only intermediate phase detected is Ti3O5. The reduction time was reduced sharply to 4 h when temperature was raised to 1300 °C. The best molar ratio of activated carbon and TiO2 is 0.6–1. At this condition, the content of Ti2O3 in slag is up to 95.63% and the content of the carbon element is below 0.004%, which meets the requirements for the further preparation of metal Ti by FFC Cambridge process. At the same time, the microstructure of Ti2O3 generated presented porosity, which would promote the electro-deoxidation process extremely.

Mar 1, 2017

By Alejandro Ferrada Vergara, María Jesús Barros Godoy

The need for a basic method for selecting explosives based on rock mass or intact rock properties for mining and construction arises from the limited consideration given to these factors when choosing among products and also an implicit overestimation of the explosive power to fragment the rock. This study highlights the importance of evaluating different properties such as rock strength, deformation, fracturing, detonation velocity and energy release when selecting explosives. The concept of characteristic impedance, which considers rock strength against shock waves generated by explosive detonation, is introduced. Understanding this concept is crucial for assessing explosive behavior according to various rock types. The study concludes with a practical guide table that categorizes rock properties and provides recommendations for selecting explosives based on rock mass and rock properties. However, it is important to consider other relevant factors, such as the presence of water or nearby instabilities, which can influence the final choice of explosives.

Jan 21, 2025

By M. -B. Kime

This study applies attainable region analysis to optimise cobalt recovery from oxidised ores via reductive leaching with sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid. The attainable region framework enables systematic visualisation of trade-offs between cobalt yield and sulphur dioxide loss, guiding reactor network design beyond conventional mass balance modelling. Experimental column leaching trials, supported by validation runs, were conducted under controlled flow and reagent conditions. Kinetic parameters for cobalt dissolution and sulphur dioxide consumption were used to simulate reactor trajectories and construct attainable region envelopes. To ensure hydrodynamic realism, residence time distribution tests confirmed partial plug flow behaviour with dispersion effects, justifying the use of hybrid reactor models in the attainable region simulations. The results revealed that increasing recirculation ratios improves cobalt yield while reducing sulphur dioxide losses, with attainable efficiencies exceeding 90% cobalt recovery and < 20% sulphur dioxide loss. Importantly, the study proposes practical reactor network configurations for future implementation, including staged percolation columns with intermediate mixing zones, oscillatory flow reactors, and modular fluidised bed systems. These designs offer scalable pathways to translate attainable region-based optimisations into industrial practice. Compared to traditional modelling, attainable region analysis provides a geometric decision support tool that captures multi-objective trade-offs and reactor interactions, offering novel insights for continuous leaching system design. This work advances the application of attainable region methodology in minerals engineering by bridging theoretical optimisation with practical reactor design, supporting sustainable cobalt recovery from both primary ores and recycled feedstocks.

Mar 30, 2026

By Jorge Alberto Soares Tenório, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa, Morgana Rosset, Bárbara da Rocha Pereira

High-purity alumina finds application in various electronic industry sectors, with approximately 100 million tons of this compound being produced worldwide. Alumina is acquired through the mining process of bauxite, a rock composed of a mixture of minerals such as gibbsite, kaolinite, hematite, and either anatase or rutile. In 2020, both bauxite and alumina were included in the list of critical raw materials. Due to the demand for high-purity alumina production, the development of a methodology to remove impurities present in the leach liquor from bauxite processing by solvent extraction (SX) followed by precipitation has been widely studied. This work aims to obtain high-purity alumina from bauxite by a solvent extraction process followed by a precipitation step from the sulfur leach liquor obtained by the thorough dissolution of Al and Fe from bauxite. Different parameters were evaluated in the SX step, such as extractant type, pH, temperature, and volume-to-volume ratio. The results indicated that using Alamine 336 as an extractant at pH 0 and room temperature led to an extraction of 90% of Fe and 15% of Al. Aluminum sulfate was completely precipitated as aluminum hydroxide and 55% of Fe using NH4OH. After the calcination procedure, obtaining a 99.9% pure alumina was possible without generating a red mud-similar residue.

Dec 28, 2023

By A Manfrino

The Iron Bridge magnetite mine and infrastructure project is currently in development as a joint venture between Fortescue Metals Group, Formosa and Baosteel. It is supported by an extensive database of reverse circulation drill hole samples analysed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), with a large subset tested for concentrate mass recovery, concentrate and tail grades by Davis tube recovery (DTR) testing. A limited number of rock physical testing results, including unconfined/uniaxial compressive strength and crushing work index, completes the database.By combining all available information – assays, DTR results, geology, stratigraphy, mineralogy and rock physical results – and using multivariate statistical analysis techniques, the impact of the critical factors that control concentrate quality, mass recovery and grindability characteristics have been outlined. A set of geochemical groups was created by using a cluster analysis technique from the combined XRF-DTR data. These groups allow optimal separation of material with consistently high concentrate Fe grades and mass recovery. This approach is superior to domaining based on stratigraphic logging or mass recovery as it is commonly used in standard magnetite estimation models. Using the results of a normative mineralogy study, the main geochemical groups were given a mineralogical profile fitting their geochemical characteristics. These findings further refined the understanding of the link between the process characteristics of the samples and their geochemical signature and mineralogy.The geochemical grouping defined on head grades and DTR concentrate mass recovery was generalised into a ‘geomet’ code based solely on the routinely assayed head grades, thus bypassing the need for systematic DTR testing. The geomet code identifies spatial domains with homogeneous geochemistry, mineralogy and process characteristics in both oxide and fresh material that form the basis of the current Iron Bridge resource model. The allocation of geometallurgical characteristics in terms of concentration amenability and concentrate characteristics on a block-by-block basis over the whole project allows for an optimum mine schedule and plant feed. This ensures that the desired concentrate characteristics and mass recovery can be better predicted over the life-of-mine, thereby improving the mine’s economics and stability by derisking the mine schedule and optimising the performance of the concentrators. A key benefit of the geomet code devised for the Iron Bridge mine is that it can be attributed in an automated manner to all samples analysed for a routine XRF analytical suite, from exploration to blasthole drilling. This allows each sample to be allocated to a geometallurgical material type with predictable process response in terms of concentrate mass recovery and concentrate quality without the need to complete systematic DTR testing.A standard multivariate analysis coupled with a cluster analysis has allowed the linking of interdisciplinary results between geology, mineralogy, geochemistry, process and metallurgy to better understand, predict and ultimately mine and process the Iron Bridge deposits. This allows plant operations and product quality to be optimised through each stage thanks to the predictable ore characteristics embedded in the mining model.CITATION:Manfrino, A, 2015. Unravelling the factors impacting on concentrate quality by geometallurgical data analysis at Fortescue Metals Group’s Iron Bridge magnetite mine, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2015, pp 567–578 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 13, 2015

By L. W. Vigrass

Porous and permeable rocks deeply buried in sedimentary basins contain immense volumes of hot water with the potential to supply low-grade heat energy. A part of Canada with sizeable potential for low-grade geothermal energy is the northern Williston Basin of southern Saskatchewan. In this region, the University of Regina has conducted a geological study investigating the feasibility of producing large quantities of warm water suitable for space heating in the Regina - Moose Jaw area. The study has shown that the most favourable geothermal reservoirs are in the Basal Clastic Unit (Cambrian Ordovician), which, at an approximate depth of 2,000 metres has predicted temperatures of 71°C to 74°C. We anticipate sustainable flow rates from these reservoirs of 100 to 300 ms/hr. The water contains about 150,000ppm of total dissolved solids, mostly sodium chloride. It is anticipated that the sulphate content will be 3,000 to 6,000 ppm, that the dissolved oxygen and hydrogen sulphide content will be small, and that the waters will be neutral to slightly alkaline. It is anticipated that the piezometric level will be 46 m below the ground surface for reservoirs in the upper part of the Basal Clastic Unit and 141m below the ground surface for the lower reservoirs of the unit. Plans are to build a low-grade geothermal research, testing and demonstration facility at the University of Regina. To be a practical demonstration, the facility will have to handle very large volumes of water. Because of high salinity, the water will be re injected into a subsurface reservoir. We do not anticipate insurmountable problems because of salinities or as a result of corrosion provided that the waters are not aerated during handling

Jan 1, 1979

By Donald James Butler

Problems resulting from underground mines in three inactive mining districts in Colorado were investigated. The purpose was to determine how these problems could be reduced or eliminated in new closings -- essentially by benefitting from lessons of the past. Mines in Leadville, Westcliffe and the Cripple Creek-Victor districts were evaluated. Two basic types of problems were found to exist in the districts: environmental degradation and hazardous conditions. Environmental problems result largely from acid and toxic drainage from the runes and from leaching of surface waste rock piles and mill tailings impoundment. The acid drainage contributes high levels of metals to streams and deposits sediment in the stream bottoms. Erosion of waste piles is a lesser problem. Hazardous conditions from open or improperly sealed mine shafts and adits, mine subsidence pits, and from deteriorating and unsafe surface structures are common to the three districts. These problems become worse with the ravages of time and vandalism. Engineering solutions which would correct or reduce many of these problems are presented. These recommendations should also be applied to new mine closures, however, more basic changes are needed to effectively implement improved mine closures. The changes must take place in the areas of legislation, mining practices and education. Legislated regulations should realistically reflect the needs of both the mine operators, protection of the environment and the best interest of the general public. Benefits should be provided for compliance with regulations instead of penalties being assessed for noncompliance. Hazardous conditions and environmental problems associated with mines can be alleviated through improved mine design and effective cloning procedures. Education should provide an appreciation by the general public of past and present problems facing mine operators. This will result in an improved mining climate which, in turn, will insure a continuing supply of minerals to meet increasing needs.

Jan 1, 1983

By E. Gybbon Spilsbury

The introduction of underground machinery in mines, and especially the invention of the rock drill, called attention to the necessity for some motive power to drive them. The use of steam generators underground is as a general thing inadmissible, owing to the difficulties of ventilation and the transportation of fuel, and the great loss of power by condensation in the pipes, when surface generators are used, added to the inconvenience of getting rid of the exhaust steam, has precluded the direct use of steam for this class of machinery. Water as a power has with very few exceptions proved a failure, owing to its weight and incompressibility, and therefore the attention of mining engineers has very naturally turned to the use of compressed air. This agent not only answers all the requirements for power, but has the double advantage of greatly assisting in thoroughly ventilating remote workings, and in cooling the underground atmosphere. It is therefore clear that the successful introduction of underground machinery is dependent on the economical production of good and efficient air-compressing machinery. Although many improvements have of late years been introduced in this class of machines, the most of them are open to serious objections, the chief of which are the very small duty they perform for the power expended, and their great expense, due to the complexity of their construction. This latter fault is the chief reason why the introduction of rock drills and other underground engines is so limited, as comparatively few mines can afford to expend the required capital for the installation of a complete compressing plant. But with the introduction of a cheap and effective compressor, there is no doubt that power drills will become as generally used in mines as the hand drills are now. The great excess of power required in most machines to compress air over that given out again by the use of the air thus compressed (amounting as it does in most cases to sixty per cent.) is well known to all mining engineers. Of course a portion of this loss is due to the friction of the air through the pipes, and will always occur however effective the machine used may be, but the chief cause of the

Jan 1, 1880

By Marcos de Paiva Bueno, Leonardo Ribeiro Lara, Rajiv Chandramohan, Thiago de Almeida, Greg Lane

This paper explores the impact of the significant difference between the number of geochemical assays conducted for grade estimation and the number of comminution tests performed for throughput and performance forecasting. Both grade and throughput are key factors in determining the project. We analysed 154 feasibility study reports to assess the impact of sample frequency for comminution test work on project revenue. This disparity in size between assay and comminution data arises because geological and resource-grade risks cannot be managed without extensive geochemical testing, whereas comminution risks are traditionally mitigated through design methods and the use of contingencies. This approach is partly due to the relatively high cost and large sample requirements associated with traditional comminution tests. Our analysis demonstrates that insufficient comminution sampling and testing leads to uncertainties in throughput forecasts, creating significant financial risks. Data from the feasibility studies show that a 1% change in mill throughput can result in up to a 5% variation in Net Present Value (NPV), underscoring the sensitivity of project economics to operational performance. Building on previous work, we reference studies that reveal how low frequency of comminution testing can increase uncertainty in mill throughput forecasts and increase financial risks. We propose an approach that optimises the number of comminution samples tested to enhance forecast accuracy and reduce NPV variance. By adopting this approach, mining projects can improve financial reliability and mitigate risks associated with underperformance in SAG and AG mill-based operations.

Feb 1, 2025

By C. A. Komar

The Bureau of Mines has undertaken an investigation to determine possible applications of acoustic energy at sonic and ultrasonic frequencies to improve ultimate recovery from oil reservoirs. A literature search was conducted to provide background information for initiating laboratory research. The purpose of the literature search was to review the uses that have been made of acoustic energy in the petroleum industry and to select procedures and techniques that could be applied to the solution of petroleum production problems. The characteristics (68)3 of ultrasonic energy make it potentially useful to a variety of industrial and experimental applications. Pulse techniques (99) are common in the testing of materials where inspection is accomplished by propagating an ultrasonic pulse through the material. Viscosity measurements (45) are made by interpreting changes in the absorption of sound as it is propagated through a flowing liquid. Cavitation phenomena (93) produced by high-intensity ultrasound in liquids have been used extensively in industrial cleaning, machining, impact grinding, and aluminum soldering operations.

Jan 1, 1963

By W. P. Yant

The widespread use of toluene in industry and the importance of air analysis in industrial-hygiene surveys have created a need for a simple and accurate method for determining toluene vapor in air. Most of the methods used to determine small quantities of toluene in liquid or vapor form are based on the measurement of its physical properties. Methods based on fractional distillation, determination of specific gravity, use of the interferometer, use of the spectrograph, and sorption on solid sorbents with subsequent determination of gain in weight have been employed. Distillation and specific-gravity methods are not applicable to the small quantities of toluene found in the air, and use of the interferometer, spectrograph, and sorption methods either are not specific for toluene in the presence of other volatile substances or require expensive equipment.

Jan 1, 1936

By T. Holmes, J. Middlemiss

"Agnico-Eagle (AE) has been operating their Kittila Mine in Northern Finland since 2008. The mine has experienced considerable ore flow problems with ratholing, bridging and freezing in their mill feed bin since start up. In the first winter of operation, the entire central portion of the contents of the cylindrical flat-bottomed 2000 tonne mill feed bin froze. Flow was erratic and could only be achieved through small diameter ratholes. To maintain a reasonable, albeit limited, feed to the mill, the bin had to be kept less than ½ full and a portable steam generator was brought in to melt the frozen agglomerates that frequently blocked the outlets. The combination of limited surge capacity and frequent outages required the crushing plant to operate 24/7 and resulted in inconsistent production levels and high operating costs.AE had planned to expand the processing plant to increase throughput by about 30% when they transitioned from open pit to underground ore. These plans presented an opportunity to improve the material handling.To avoid the problems experienced with the original mill feed bin, AE enlisted Jenike & Johanson Ltd. (J&J) to test samples of the ore, and based on the measured flow properties to provide design recommendations to ensure that the new mill feed bin would operate reliably. The new 2000 tonne expanded flow mill feed bin and apron feeder were installed in 2014 and are now supplying almost 93% of the total mill feed with the remaining coming from the original bin.IntroductionIn early 2009, AE engaged J&J to visit their then recently opened Kittila mine and mill in Northern Finland (Figure 1). Over the first half-year of operation, production had been restricted in the ore handling and storage system by flow problems such as ratholing, bridging and freezing including blockages of chutes and hoppers as a result of frozen fines buildup and large frozen agglomerates. AE wanted to increase production in the existing open pit mine and mill feed operation and also wanted to avoid similar ore handling problems when they commissioned the new underground mining system under development at that time."

Jan 1, 2017

By C. Chapman, M. G. Reading, M. P. Amsden

Ecstall Mining Limited, a subsidiary of Texas Gulf Sulphur Company, operates the Kidd Creek Mine, a 10000 tons per day base metal producer, near Timmins, Ontario. Two different types of ore are mined and milled: copper-zinc and silver-lead-zinc. At the highly automated Ecstall concentrator the ores are processed by selective flotation in three individual circuits. One of the most important metallurgical tools for process control is a sample system incorporating continuous on-stream X-ray analysis. Recently this system was automated further by the addition of computer control of reagents for two copper-zinc flotation circuits. The computer programs, utilizing optimum seeking methods and smelter contract terms, have increased copper recovery by 1.1 per cent, zinc recovery by 1.4 per cent, and have reduced reagent costs by 16 per cent. Although not expected, copper and zinc concentrate grades were improved slightly as well.

Jan 1, 2014

By B Murphy

Seeking to reduce the likelihood of uncontrolled personnel entry into the operating footprint of a dragline, Coronado Global Resources initiated a review of proximity detection systems currently available and equipment interactions in and around dragline operational areas. At the time of the assessment, there were no established personnel proximity detection systems in compliance with functional safety standards for large machinery in Australia. Our primary objective was to guarantee a functionally safe outcome, particularly by implementing a performance-level-rated system in accordance with AS4024 (Safety of Machinery series of Australian Standards). Applying appropriate detection technologies, the goal was to reduce the residual operating risk for machine-to-machine and machine-to-personnel interactions. A comprehensive analysis of available or in-development technologies was conducted, and a layered approach (demonstrated in Figure 1) was adopted to achieve the desired risk reduction by segregating the sensing zones into distinct areas using diverse and disparate technologies consisting of radar (short); light detection and ranging (LiDAR) (medium); and optical (long). To address the potential limitations of each technology, overlapping layered sensing zones were designed. With LIDAR and optical using two distinct artificial intelligence (AI) systems to classify detections, these were specifically trained to handle the unique environments of a mining operation.

Sep 1, 2024

By D. H. Rubisov

The neural networks modelling approach is one of the most elegant black-box type methods to model industrial processes. In this paper, this approach is applied to model the performance of the CEZ zinc electrowinning plant. The model that was built was found to exhibit an excellent predictive ability for voltage and current density. The model was also used to investigate the sensitivity of the process to various key variables such as temperature, current density, zinc and sulphuric acid concentration, etc. Optimal regimes for zinc production were identified from the power consumption standpoint.

Jan 1, 1996

By Donald P. MacKinnon

"This paper is a commentary on selected trends within the transportation industry.In general, innovations are taking place within all modes of transport (road, rail and water) serving the industrial minerals industry which will affect future distribution patterns, methods and costs. Significant technical innovations in the transportation of solids by• pipeline will also appear, perhaps in the near future, permitting the transport of specific commodities, including some industrial minerals. However, the timing and magnitude of the commercial exploitation of solids pipelines are heavily dictated by marketing factors and distribution system logistics, as well as by the innovations likely to take place within competitive modes of transport. Competitive technological developments will include increased ship capacities, improved bulk-handling facilities, larger and specialized bulk-handling rail equipment, unit trains, containerization, larger ""off-highway"" vehicles and greater inter-modal integration. Equally significant are some ""soft-ware"" techniques such as the growing interest in total distribution cost concepts. However, the impact of the developments will not be spread uniformly over all Canadian industrial minerals."

Jan 1, 1967

By A. R. Taylor

In recent years, thermodynamic data have been used to a greater degree than ever by the chemical and metallurgical engineer as a means of predicting and controlling chemical reactions. To satisfy the spiraling demand for basic physical data needed for the calculations, the Bureau of Mines is studying the heat capacities of a variety of chemical compounds at high and low temperatures. This paper is one of a series presenting such data. The heat capacities of two alkaline earth compounds, strontium bromide and strontium nitrate, were measured in a temperature range of 60° to 300° K. in an adiabatic calorimeter and at temperatures of 300° to about 1,200° K. in a Bunsen ice calorimeter. The construction and operation of the calorimeters are discussed in other reports.3 4 The heat-capacity data presented in this report were extrapolated to 0° K., and smooth values of heat capacity, entropy, enthalpy function, and free-energy function were calculated and tabulated at even 10-degree intervals. The enthalpy data were fitted with algebraic equations by applying the method of least squares; calculations a£ heat-capacity values, entropy, enthalpy function, and free-energy function were made at even 50-degree intervals. The heat and entropy of fusion of strontium bromide were calculated from the enthalpy measurements.

Jan 1, 1962

By B Mohanty, A Siamaki, K Esmaeili

Large scale open pit mining and quarrying operations dictate safe and reliable pit wall stability. The current approach of employing the particle velocity-scaled charge distance approach to estimate and minimize damage to residential structures is considered inadequate to protect rock slopes. This study utilizes close-in blasting vibration data as input to an advanced 2D numerical code to study its applicability to serve as a predictive tool in terms of blast-induced rock slope failure. Two tri-axial accelerometer stations, consisting of high-frequency and high-amplitude (20 kHz, 100g) sensors, located within ~100m of the blast, but at two different bench levels, were used to monitor production blasts in a limestone quarry. The production blast consisted of double-decked explosive loads in 125 mm (5 in) diameter holes, with an inter-deck delay of 42 ms, and each deck consisting of 130 kg (285 lb) of emulsion explosive. The blasting vibration data obtained at the two bench levels were critically analyzed, and the vibration results served as input to the numerical model consisting of a single rock block with a 45 degree persistent joint plane but with specified strength properties, significantly different from that of the intact rock. The model was able to characterise progressive accumulation of damage in the form of microcracks along the joint surface as a function of the relatively low vibration load from successive explosive decks. The results showed that such a numerical model can serve as a very good diagnostic and predictive tool, when backed up by careful vibration monitoring and further supported by detailed slope monitoring.

Jan 1, 2017