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By R Russell

The relative infrequency of fatalities and other serious events can give them an appearance of being random, of being beyond any reasonable degree of anticipation and prevention. In fact, the vast majority of these events result from exposures that are identifiable, measurable, and manageable. The lessons of prominent incidents, such as the Space Shuttle Columbia, OxyÆs Piper Alpha, Esso Longford, BP Texas City, Massey Mine, as well as lessons from single fatality events, is that alongside the proximate causes of each incident, there also coexisted an underlying fabric of systems, mechanisms, and culture that allowed risk in the workplace to persist and often to become normalised. All of these ingredients of the organisationÆs safety fabric lend themselves to the influence and intervention of senior leaders. The difficulty is that traditional injury prevention paradigms are not sufficient for addressing the precursors that lead up to catastrophic and fatal events. A recent study of such events, led by Dr Thomas Krause concluded that the descriptive aspect of HeinrichÆs safety triangle is useful, but that the predictive aspect is not. The study surfaced reasons why a reduction in less serious injuries does not necessarily correspond to a proportionate reduction in catastrophic and fatal risks. This presentation expands on the findings to include the concept of exposure to the event potential linked to precursor events and the framework for leading an organisation to be both cognisant and effective in eliminating such events.CITATION:Russell, R, 2012. Shifting the cultural paradigm for the prevention of catastrophic and fatal events, in Proceedings International Mine Management 2012, pp 91-96 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 20, 2012

By Paolo Cavalcoli, Federico Pagliacci

"As opposed to the static functional recovery of existing structures, the construction of infrastructures in an urban environment, when combined with complex geological situations, often involves building foundation structures, whether circular or rectangular in section, through rock formations or chaotic strata (sand and gravel with cobbles). Until a few years ago, these formations or strata were sometimes an insurmountable constraint on traditional foundation installation techniques. The difficulty in overcoming these geological situations is sometimes added to the increasingly frequent need to reach depths that were unimaginable just a decade ago. These are real challenges for those carrying out these works and for those manufacturing the necessary equipment. There are two main methodological approaches to these problems, that can be summed up in the rhetorical figure of ""David and Goliath"": cunning versus force. In reference to the case studies in this article: the permanent retaining walls for the Copenhagen Metro, and the structural repairs to the Arapuni Dam in New Zealand and the Wolf Creek Dam in the U.S., we will describe the foundations constructed in presence of rock using combined small-diameter direction drilling solutions, associated with their enlargement up to the project’s size, at depths exceeding 300 feet. Finally, a case study will be presented on the implementation of a large cross-section of an excavation in the rock, at depths greater than 800 feet.IntroductionAs opposed to the functional recovery of existing structures, the construction of infrastructures in an urban environment, when combined with complex geological situations, often involves building foundation structures, whether circular or rectangular in section, through rock formations or chaotic strata (sand and gravel with cobbles).Until a few years ago, these formations or strata were sometimes an insurmountable constraint on traditional foundation installation techniques. The difficulty in overcoming these geological situations is sometimes added to the increasingly frequent need to reach depths that were unimaginable just a decade ago.These are real challenges for those building these works and for those manufacturing the necessary equipment. There are two main methodological approaches to these problems, that can be summed up in the biblical figures of ""David and Goliath"": cunning versus force. In the engineering field, the force is summarized in the use of ever-larger drilling equipment in terms of installed power, weight in working conditions, winch and rotary capacity."

Jan 1, 2015

By W. Tempelaar Lietz

The Ten Section oil field is located in the San Joaquin Valley in Kern County, California. about 12 miles southwest of Bakersfield in Township 30 South, Ranges 25 and 26 East. The accumulation is in a low relief anticlinal dome and has a productive area of approximately 2,200 acres. Discovered in 1936 as a result of seismic work, it was the first field on the floor of the Valley to obtain production. It had a small primary gas cap, and since its inception has been produced by depletion with controlled withdrawal from the gas cap to minimize blowthrough. STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY The Ten Section structure is an elongated anticlinal dome with flank dips of only about 7 degrees. A map of the field, now fully developed, and a composite log are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Contours shown on the map are on the top of the first zone, or Marker XA as indicated on the composite log. As shown, the field has a productive closure of only some 350 feet, and there apparently is no faulting in the reservoir. The productive measures in Ten Section are of Upper Miocene age and are known as the Stevens sand. They contain thin, irregular shale or siltstone streaks which vary considerably in stratigraphic position and thickness and apparently are rather discontinuous. As a result, individual sands and shales cannot be correlated over any appreciable area, which makes it difficult to subdivide the sand body into separate zones which are distinct throughout the field. However, there are two fairly persistent siltstone bodies that at the time of development were considered to divide the productive measures into three - zones. The first, or uppermost zone is productive over the entire field and has an average thickness of 180 feet, of which some 65 per cent is sand. It had a primary. gas cap in the crestal area with an areal extent of 930 acres. The second zone has a productive area somewhat smaller than the first zone, but it did not have any original gas cap. It has an average thickness of about 360 feet, of which 55 per cent is sand. The third zone has a very limited areal extent and a maximum productive thickness of 100 feet, of which 80 per cent is sand. Recently, a deeper oil accumulation, termed the "53" sand, was discovered, but it is not discussed in this analysis. In the first and second zones the water table was at 7,980 feet subsea, while in the third zone it was at 8,080 feet subsea. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS Sand Characteristics The Stevens sand in Ten Section is hard and well consolidated, and numerous wells were cored for core analysis. Core data on four representative wells are shown, plotted beside the electric logs in Figs. 3 to 6. The average porosity is 20 per cent, with porosities ranging from 15 to 30 per cent. It is estimated, from cores taken with oil base muds, that the interstitial water content is about 40 per cent. The average weighted permeability is approximately 140, with measured permeabilities ranging from 10 to 3,000 md. As might be expected with practically no correlation of individual sand

Jan 1, 1949

By S. Markstrom

The Boliden AITIK copper mine is located 100 kilometres north of the Arctic Circle in northern Sweden. A pre-feasibility study was conducted in 2005 with the aim of increasing the capacity of the existing processing plant. After analysis, options to upgrade the existing plant were abandoned in favour of building a new processing plant, with higher capacity and therefore greater profitability. A new plant could be designed with greater flexibility to make potential future expansions easier. A feasibility study for a new 36 Mt/y processing plant including fully AG grinding circuits and flotation was completed in 2006. The project was approved by the Boliden board shortly thereafter. Construction started in the beginning of 2007 and was completed during 2009. Commissioning of the new plant was undertaken in the first half of 2010. The grinding circuit consists of two lines with each line consisting of a 22.5 MW AG mill and a 10 MW Pebble mill in closed circuit with a spiral classifier. The nominal production level is 2 200 t/h for each grinding line. This paper presents the start-up and operation of the grinding circuit.

Jan 1, 2012

By W. Tempelaar Lietz

The Ten Section oil field is located in the San Joaquin Valley in Kern County, California. about 12 miles southwest of Bakersfield in Township 30 South, Ranges 25 and 26 East. The accumulation is in a low relief anticlinal dome and has a productive area of approximately 2,200 acres. Discovered in 1936 as a result of seismic work, it was the first field on the floor of the Valley to obtain production. It had a small primary gas cap, and since its inception has been produced by depletion with controlled withdrawal from the gas cap to minimize blowthrough. STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY The Ten Section structure is an elongated anticlinal dome with flank dips of only about 7 degrees. A map of the field, now fully developed, and a composite log are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Contours shown on the map are on the top of the first zone, or Marker XA as indicated on the composite log. As shown, the field has a productive closure of only some 350 feet, and there apparently is no faulting in the reservoir. The productive measures in Ten Section are of Upper Miocene age and are known as the Stevens sand. They contain thin, irregular shale or siltstone streaks which vary considerably in stratigraphic position and thickness and apparently are rather discontinuous. As a result, individual sands and shales cannot be correlated over any appreciable area, which makes it difficult to subdivide the sand body into separate zones which are distinct throughout the field. However, there are two fairly persistent siltstone bodies that at the time of development were considered to divide the productive measures into three - zones. The first, or uppermost zone is productive over the entire field and has an average thickness of 180 feet, of which some 65 per cent is sand. It had a primary. gas cap in the crestal area with an areal extent of 930 acres. The second zone has a productive area somewhat smaller than the first zone, but it did not have any original gas cap. It has an average thickness of about 360 feet, of which 55 per cent is sand. The third zone has a very limited areal extent and a maximum productive thickness of 100 feet, of which 80 per cent is sand. Recently, a deeper oil accumulation, termed the "53" sand, was discovered, but it is not discussed in this analysis. In the first and second zones the water table was at 7,980 feet subsea, while in the third zone it was at 8,080 feet subsea. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS Sand Characteristics The Stevens sand in Ten Section is hard and well consolidated, and numerous wells were cored for core analysis. Core data on four representative wells are shown, plotted beside the electric logs in Figs. 3 to 6. The average porosity is 20 per cent, with porosities ranging from 15 to 30 per cent. It is estimated, from cores taken with oil base muds, that the interstitial water content is about 40 per cent. The average weighted permeability is approximately 140, with measured permeabilities ranging from 10 to 3,000 md. As might be expected with practically no correlation of individual sand

Jan 1, 1949

By R Kersten

The note describes an exercise on the simulation of the frequency and size of seismic events on the basis of the frequency distribution of the events and their inter-arrival times (Le. the frequency distribution of the time elapsed between events). From the suite of available results, those of one simulation for a period of three months are included. The tentative conclusions drawn from the exercise indicate that the overall seismic activity in an area can be predicted for a time period, that structurally complex areas will have a higher incidence of seismic events than other areas, and that the position and time of an event cannot be predicted by the use of a wide-spread system such as that used at present.

Jan 1, 1985

By John D. Price

COAL blending, in the preparation of coal before coke making, is so commonly practiced as to be almost universal. But the reasons underlying this practice, the benefits resulting from it, and the materials used in blending vary widely. This paper will outline the various phases of the subject and present information which may be correlated with work that has been done elsewhere. It will deal entirely with work done on the high-volatile coking coals of the western part of the United States, special emphasis being given to the coals of Colorado and Utah. A surveyL of the 86 coke plants in active operation in the United States during 1949 indicates that only 9 plants, or 10.5 pct of the total, charged one single rank of coal into their ovens, while the remaining 89.5 pcl made use of blending in some form. This report indicated that of these total plants 5 used straight high-volatile coal, 4 used straight medium-volatile coal, 47 used blends of high and low-vola-tile coals, 25 used blends of high, medium, and low-volatile coals, 2 used blends of high and medium-volatile coals, 3 used blends of medium and low-volatile coals. The fact that certain plants operated on a single kind of coal should not be interpreted to mean that no blending was practiced there, for invariably such plants secure their coal from more than one source and in the interest of uniformity do blend the coals as received. The general term coal blending covers two fields, the first of which is the mechanical mixing of a number of coals to secure uniformity. Often it is found necessary to secure coal for coke production from a number of different mines; these coals, though of the same general type or rank, may differ in their chemical composition or in the physical qualities they impart to coke made from them. Again, it is not unusual to find that coal from different sections of the same mine may show variations in quality. Under such conditions it may be necessary, in the interest of a uniform final product, to introduce a system of blending bins, a bedding yard, or other mechanical methods of securing a uniform mixture. Unfortunately this form of blending has received very little attention up to the present time; it has not received the consideration its value merits. The second type of blending, while also for the purpose of coke improvement, deals more particularly with the use of a blending agent differing in character from the base coal: it is this form of blending that will be discussed here. To consider only the western coals, for blending may be found necessary for other reasons with other coals, blending has been practiced experimentally or commercially under the following conditions: 1—When a single coal or mixture of coals of the same rank does not produce a satisfactory coke. For example, a high-volatile coal when used alone is likely to contract when coked so that a comparatively weak coke is formed. Or, if of very low rank, the coal may be deficient in the necessary bitumens required for good coke production. 2—When a product of some special quality is required, for example, when a plant ordinarily producing blast furnace coke must operate at slow coking rate to produce a high-grade foundry coke. Under this condition the reduced daily production of all products which accompanies slow coking time may be undesirable, and the use of some blending agent to increase the size of coke made at faster coking rates may be necessary. 3—When greater yield of coke or its coproducts is needed. Depending upon economic values of the products it may be found desirable to increase the yield of one or the other. 4—When supply of a particular coal must be used, either to protect reserves of high quality coking coal or to utilize a surplus or inferior product not otherwise usable. Many materials have been used for blending purposes, the exact agent to be used depending both upon the condition to be corrected and the nature of the base coal. No universal blending agent that can

Jan 1, 1954

By AIME AIME

ON MAY 22 the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers will commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of its founding at Wilkes- Barre, Pa., in May, 1871. The Directors have transferred the May meeting of the Board to Wilkes-Barre, and the Pennsylvania Anthracite Section has invited as many members of the Institute as can to be present at this time and to join with their fellow-engineers at Wilkes-Barre in the inspection trip through a portion of the anthracite district that has been planned. Ac- cess to Wilkes-Barre is easy, from nearby points, over excellent automobile roads, or by train. The distance from New York is only about 140 miles. , It is hoped to engage a special car for those travelling by train from New York, which will leave the Pennsylvania Station over the Lehigh Valley Railroad at 11:50 p.m., arriving in Wilkes-Barre the next morning. Return can be made from Wilkes-Barre by sleeper the same evening, arriving in New York Saturday morning. Other trains are available for those who prefer a daylight journey.

Jan 1, 1931

By M. G. Corson

The iron-silicon alloy series has always been one of the most puzzling among the binary alloys. Examining the well-known mechanical properties of the iron-rich alloys only we meet the following situation: The ultimate strength and yield point of alloys worked and annealed under the usual conditions represent nearly a straight line function of the silicon content up to 1.5 per cent. silicon (Fig. I). Starting at the ultimate strength of 35,000 lb. and at a yield point of 16,000 lb. for pure electrolytic iron, one reaches a maximurn strength of 93,000 lb. and a maximum yield point of 74,000 lb. at 4.5 per cent. silicon. This corresponds to an increase in ultimate strength by 13,000 lb, per each per cent. of silicon added and nearly the same rate applies to the yield point. The data mentioned are taken from the investigation by T. D. Yensen,1 and while they do not exactly corroborate the results obtained by earlier investigators, they seem to be the most correct. Plastic properties of the alloys are controlled by a much more complicated relationship. Up to 2..5 per cent. Si, the elongation stays close to 50 per cent. (in 2 in.) and the area reduction amounts to 85 per cent., a situation that forms the usual feature of all alloys representing strictly solid solutions. The plasticity of the latter is always nearly equal to that of their base metal. Beyond 2.5 per cent. silicon, the situation becomes much more complicated. Yensen observed an enormous drop in elongation and area reduction at about 2.65 per cent. silicon, where the first hardly reaches 10 per cent. and the second is still lower; he found, however, a considerable recovery in plasticity at about 2.8 per cent. Si and up to 1.5 per cent. Si it is represented by 20 per cent. for the elongation and 30 per cent. for area reduction. Yensen's graphs, as shown in Fig. 1, indicate also a considerable drop in strength and yield point at the same point of 2.65 per cent. Si,

By C. A. Heiland

THIS year's review of geophysical activities has a somewhat different complexion than usual. With the ending of the war, the time seems opportune to supplement the customary report on operations and discoveries in oil and mine exploration by a review out-lining the contributions of geophysicists to the. war effort. To give as much space as possible to the latter, presented as Part 2, some of the usual review features have been omitted from the statistical section, given as Part 1 immediately following.

Jan 1, 1946

By Lidong Teng

ArcSaveTM is a new generation of electromagnetic stirrer (EMS) from ABB for electric arc furnace (EAF) operation. Its goal is to improve the safety, increase the productivity and reduce costs. Electromagnetic stirring in the melt bath during arc furnace operation will affect the scrap smelting, bath temperature distribution, refining reactions, and also the tapping practice. This paper has summarized the investigation results obtained from the first ArcSaveTM system installed in a 90 ton EBT arc furnace in USA. The hot test results show that ArcSaveTM has enhanced the heat and mass transfer in the arc furnace process. This results in a faster scrap melting rate, lower slag superheat during arcing, more homogenous melt bath, higher decarburization rate and higher EBT free opening frequency. ArcSaveTM has also reduced the tapping temperature and tapping oxygen in the steel. This brings a higher scrap yield and saves ferroalloy consumption in the downstream ladle furnace operation. The lower energy consumption, short tap-to-tap time, and consistent furnace operation bring increased productivity and safety.

Aug 16, 2017

By H. W. Turner

Lying to the east of the Rio Grande, in central New Mexico, is a long N. and S. mountain range, broken into separate ridges at several points. These have received separate names; the mountains at the south end, near El Paso, being known as the Franklin mountains, and then, following successively, to the north, the San Andreas range, Sierra Oscura, Manzano and Sandia mountains. At the eastern base of the Sierra Oscura there are several low ridges, remarkable for their red color. All of these red ridges contain reefs of copper-ore. The eastern flanks of the Sierra Oscura are composed of limestone. Some fossils in the limestone were examined by Prof. J. P. Smith of Stanford University, who says they are Fusulina and indicate an Tipper Carboniferous age. The sandstones and shales containing the copper-reefs directly overlie this limestone (Fig. I), and are very likely of Permian age, like the similar beds in Texas, described by Mr. W. F. Cummins.* Overlying the copper-beds are red sandstones and shales in which very little copper has been found. The cupriferous zone and the red sandstones and shales are everywhere associated, and as one stands on a high point, he will see that these rocks form three main belts or lines of hills. These may be referred to as the northern, middle and southern belts. The northern belt was not visited by me, but is known to contain copper-deposits. The middle belt has a trend of N. of W. and S. of E. The copper-reefs have been traced for a distance of more than 2 miles. The southern belt has a trend of about N. 30' W. and S. 30°

Jan 1, 1903

By M J. Saynor, J B. C Lowry

The Ranger Uranium Mine is located in the wet-dry monsoonal tropics approximately 250 km east of Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia (Figure 1). Mining of open-cut ore bodies commenced in 1980 (Pit 1) and ceased in 2012 (Pit 3) and milling and production are scheduled to cease by 2021. At the conclusion of mining and milling operations, mine tailings will be returned to the mined out pits 1 and 3, which must then be physically isolated from the environment for at least 10,000 years (Australian Government 1999). The final landform also needs to have sufficient mitigation measures in place to ensure that areas downstream are not impacted by erosion products from the mine site. The proposed post-mining rehabilitated landform will cover approximately 847 hectares (8.5 km2) which represents an area that has the potential to supply sediment to catchments and streams downstream. One method of reducing runoff and associated sediment is the construction of rip lines along the contour to slow down the runoff velocity and to also trap fine sediment and nutrients in the depressions to assist vegetation growth.CITATION:Saynor, M J and Lowry, J B C, 2018. The impact of rip lines on erosion at the Ranger Mine Site, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2018, pp 150–154 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 25, 2018

Evidence for Middle-Late Triassic large-scale, silicic volcanism characteristic of extensional continental terranes is widespread in the Tasman Orogenic Zone in Eastern Australia. Detailed study of an area of south-east Queensland has defined the eroded remnants of a large collapse caldera and an associated area of rhyolite dome building and regional downsag which may be a second caldera (Stephens, 1986). The silicic volcanics and minor basaltic to andesitic products have been assigned to the Aranbanga Volcanic Group (Cranfield, in prep.) and the associated granite complex has been named the Mungore Complex (Ellis, 1968). Published isotopic age dates on the Mungore Complex are 212-219 m.y. (K-Ar Biotite; Ellis, 1968) and 226 m.y. (pooled Rb-Sr on several similar plutons in the region; Webb and McDougall, 1967). Basalts within the area have been dated at 219 m.y. (GSQ Annual Rpt., 1986). The collapse caldera (Mungore Caldera) lies on the intersection of 4 major structural features: 1) the Mt. Perry Lineament, a meridional fault zone extending for over 600 kilometres in a NNW-SSE direction and which has faulted the eastern part of the caldera 5 kilometres sinistrally. The lineament has been active at least from mid-Permian to Late Triassic and has localised activity into the Tertiary. Granite plutons of the same age as'the Mungore Complex- are topographically prominent and largely concentrated east of the Mt. Perry Lineament and its extensions (Nash, 1986); 2) the extension of the Darling River Lineament, a continental-scale, ENE trending feature which correlates with regional structural discontinuities but which lacks expression as faults within the Tasman Orogenic Zone;

Jan 1, 1987

By Stewart B. Nelson

With the pending U.S. ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the subject was raised as to the Convention's potential impact on U.S. ocean science. The Ocean Studies Board (National Academy of Sciences) elected to convene a two-day workshop in October 1995 to consider the potential impacts and to determine whether or not they warranted a more formal and intensive study. A review of the workshop discussions and deliberations concerning the matter of UNCLOS and U.S. ocean science will be presented.

Jan 1, 1996

By Charles P. Berkey, John B. Hastings

The reconnaissance of the Goldfield mining-district, describecl in this paper, was made in May and June, 1905, and, though this time was too short for a complete report, the work accomplished may serve as a basis for more thorough future research. Dr. Berkey has examined the rocks collected by me, and I am using his classifications. As a result of further field-work, and Dr. Berkey's examination of the rocks, this paper is an elaboration and correction of my views expressed in the Gold-$elm Sun, May 12, 1905. The sketch-map, Fig. 1, illustrates the geology of the Goldfield mining-district. Goldfield is an eruptive complex, consisting of alaskite (hinary granite), hornblende-andesite, hornblende-dacite, rhyolite, pyroxene-andesite, pyroxene-dacite (sometimes containing a small quantity of olivine), quartz-felsite, olivine-pyroxene-ande-site, and basalt. Considering this list to be arranged in the order of eruption, the age-sequence of the rocks conforms to Richthofen's law, formulated in 1868. From his observations in Europe and America, propylite, andesite, trachyte, rhyolite and basalt, occurring together, succeed one another. In a general way, the medium and the more acidic rocks precede the most basic—a result supposed by some to hare arisen from their position beneath the. surface, and due to a rude stratification by gravity in the original cooling magma during the older history of the earth, or to the same differentiation occurring during a quiescent (molten ?) period preceding eruption, being aided by the ease with which acidic rocks, mixed with water vapors, become fusible. In effect, the more basic and less re-

Jan 1, 1907

Coal mining in the Bulli seam in the Southern Coalfield in New South Wales has experienced the dangers of outbursts of coal and gas. These incidents present a major risk to the safety of mine workers and consequently a threat to the overall viability of the mining operations. Since the occurrence of a major outburst incident in the South Bulli Colliery in 1991 involving three fatalities, the primary contributory factors associated with coal/gas outbursts in the Bulli coal seam have been identified and a strategy for the management of the outburst risk has been formulated by the cooperation of mine operators, mine workers and the Department of Mineral Resources. Utilisation of risk management techniques in combination with modern gas drainage technologies and geological control methods have led to the formation of this effective outburst management plan. Clause 15 of the Coal Mines (Underground) Regulation 1999 in NSW has made it mandatory in an area of outburst to carry out mining in accordance with a code or guidelines developed for mining in outburst prone areas (DMR, 1999). In this paper an outburst management system is discussed which was developed for collieries in the Southern Coalfield that brings together all the available information including past experiences and risk management techniques in a documented form in order to maximise safety of mine workers. It is concluded that since the introduction of the outburst risk management systems in the Southern Coalfield in 1994 considerable reduction in outburst incidences have been experienced.

Jan 1, 2003

By William W. Adams

Not since complete records of accidents first became available has the safety record of the quarrying and related industries of the United States been as favorable as it was in 1940. The combined accident-frequency rate was lower and therefore better than in any year since 1916, the first year for which complete and comparable figures are available. Although operating companies began to furnish accident reports to the Bureau of Mines in 1911, the reports for that year and the next few years were obviously incomplete as to number of accidents reported, especially slight injuries involving only 1 or 2 days of disability of the injured employees. By 1916 the reports from operating companies appeared to be reliable as to completeness of coverage of slight injuries. Although the number of men employed in 1940 was by no means a record, it represented a gain over each of the 2 preceding years. Likewise, the number of man-hours worked during 1940 was larger than in 1938 and 1939.

Jan 1, 1942

In recent years, the. art of electric steelmaking has received a great deal of attention, and naturally, much controversy has existed from time to time regarding the relative merits of different practices and tywes of furnaces. Nevertheless, at the present time, the basic principles of the process are reasonably well established, and by far the greatest percentage of electric steel is a product of the basic lined, direct arc type furnace. Ferro alloy manufacture has demanded the development of furnaces having very different characteristics to those used for steel. Some special alloys, however, require conditions of manufacture which are more closely approached in the steel type furnace, and thus the latter has been adapted where necessary for the production of these alloys.One such alloy, low carbon ferro-manganese, is manufactured at Whyalla, South Australia, in a basic-lined, direct arc furnace, which is used alternatively for the production of alloy steels.BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ELECTRIC FURNACEThe principle of melting by electricity was first applied to the melting of iron in 1879 by William von Siemens, whose equipment consisted of a small crucible into which were introduced two carbon electrodes. Very little practical development took place in the next 20 years, although in 1890 a Frenchman named Heroult designed a direct arc furnace for the production of ferro alloys. At the beginning of the 20th century, several types of furnaces were patented for steel melting, the most important of these being the Heroult, using a direct arc, the...

Jan 1, 1951

By Larry Kaufman, Morris Cohen

THE solid phase equilibria' and the martensitic transformation in the iron-nickel system have been the subject of considerable study. In addition, there have been numerous investigations on the calorimetric and thermodynamic properties of iron-nickel alloys. The purpose of the present work is to extend the existing information concerning the martensitic reaction in the iron-nickel system, and to develop a general thermodynamic treatment which will encompass the equilibrium and non-equilibrium phase

Jan 1, 1957