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By R. B. Ellestad

Introduction Lithium has been known since 1817, when it was discovered by the Swedish chemist, Arfvedson, while working in the laboratory of Berzelius on the chemical analysis of the mineral petalite, LiAl(Si205)2. Development of the chemistry of lithium proceeded slowly, following the early work of Davy, Gmelin, Bunsen, and Matthiessen. Approximately seventy years elapsed before lithium products assumed any commercial importance, and for a considerable period it was a' very minor industry. Their chief early use seems to have been in medicine, and in the production of lithiated water. Other more important uses were gradually discovered, and the industry has had a slow but steady growth. Chemistry Lithium is classified as an alkali metal, along with sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cæsium. Like these, it is a silvery-white metal, which can be cut with a knife; it is harder than sodium, but softer than lead" It is remarkable in having a density of only 0.53 gram per cubic centimeter, which makes it the lightest metal. On ignition in air, it burns intensely to form chiefly lithium monoxide, Li2O. Like the other alkali metals, lithium reacts vigorously with water to form hydrogen and lithium hydroxide. The later is a strong base, and reacts with acids to form salts. The salts of lithium are in general analogous to those of the -other alkalies, but many of them have unique properties. For example, lithium chloride and bromide are extremely hygroscopic, and have a very high water solubility. Lithium fluoride, phosphate, and carbonate, on the other hand, are all relatively insoluble, unlike the corresponding sodium and potassium compounds. In this instance, lithium exhibits its frequent tendency to resemble the alkaline-earth group of elements (calcium, strontium, and barium). Many of the special and valuable properties of lithium are related to the extremely small size of the lithium ion.

Jan 1, 1948

By AIME AIME

ANNOUNCEMENT on August 6 of the historic event of dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, was more dramatic even than V-E day, since that had so long been forecast whereas the bomb production had been the best-kept secret of the war, even though at one time more than 100,000 people had been at work in connection with its production, and some two billion dollars had been spent on the project. Mining men had long been aware of an unexplained abnormal interest in uranium production, and suspected that something of the sort was on foot, while metallurgists were aware that various men of their acquaintance were engaged in some top secret research. The first announcement was soon supplemented by other official releases which told more about the research laboratories for theoretical and pilot studies, and the plants in Tennessee and Washington, but none of them made clear what the modus operandi is of these terrific bombs. Inquiry at Colum. bia University, where Dr. Dunning and his associates had succeeded in 1939 in splitting the uranium atom, and where laboratories known only as SAM have been feverishly active since the beginning of the war, was unproductive, since none of those officially connected with the project could give out anything beyond the official releases.

Jan 1, 1945

New York, March 18, 1913. MR. CHARLES F. RA ND, President, New YORK, MARCH American Institute of Mining Engineers. Dear Sir: In connection with the official notice of Dr. Raymond's unanimous election by the Directors as Secretary Emeritus, we wish to place upon record certain statements concerning his services to the Institute which we think have not been published., and may not be generally known to the majority of our fellow-members. When the Institute was formed in 1871, Dr. Raymond acted as Secretary of the Founders' Meeting, and became the first Vice-President of the Institute, and, by request of the aged and beloved David Thomas, who was the first President of the Institute, Dr. Raymond discharged all the duties of the office of President, to which he was later formally elected in 1872, and which lip held for three years. During that time, he visited Europe, and through his acquaintance and reputation abroad, established those international relations of the Institute which proved so important in later years. He also enlisted the support of the mining engineers and metallurgists of the Pacific Slope, who would not otherwise have been disposed to join a society originating in the East. And for twelve years he attended; at his own expense, nearly every meeting of the Institute, wherever held, giving to it without remuneration his best service, and sacrificing for it many professional and private interests.

Jan 4, 1913

The necessity for agreed project outcomes, which are in accordance with client needs, and the subsequent requirement for a unique approach to managing project implementation is discussed. Reasons for appointing a separate project team to manage a project are established. The selection of a project manager, based on the services they can provide and on their characteristics, skills and management style, is discussed. The consequences of selecting the wrong project manager are explored. A broad overview of the requirements for the project team is provided. Criteria for the selection of team members, and the role played by the project manager in this selection, are discussed. The levers that drive `on-time and on-budget' projects are discussed in terms of the project's vision, goals, controls, and incentives.

Jan 1, 1997

By Pierre Hines

THE. Owyhee Tunnels in eastern Oregon were started in the early part of 1930, and were completed early in 1932, with the excep-tion of the Magoffin contract. One tunnel is a large water tun-nel, and the other is a small water tunnel; each is approximately tour miles long. Modern equipment was used to full advantage, and remarkably fast time was made during the driving period. The ,J. F. Shea Co., con-tractors, of Portland, Oregon, have broken established records in the smaller tunnel. Their methods are described in detail. The time of a complete round has been reduced by intelligent handling of mechanical shoveling, and this article records some of the useful facts developed. Charles A. Shea (president of the J. F. Shea Co., and secretary of The Six Companies, Inc.) not only granted permission to publish this article, but placed the company's complete daily reports at the writer's disposal. These reports were made out to conform with previous records upon important tunnel work, and enable a comparison to be made of actual averages, rather than ideal cycles, or representative cycles. Gilbert Shea, present superintendent, has been helpful with time, criticisms, and corrections of the information presented. Morton S. Boss, superintendent during the first 15 months of the tunnel work, gave many hours of his time during two visits lasting over two weeks. The whole staff of the J. F. Shea Co. has given encouragement and assistance.

Jan 1, 1933

By J. C. Allen, E. V. Herring

CHILE EXPLORATION CO's. oxide plant at Chuquicamata, the largest of its kind, started in 1915 with initial operations at the rate of 10,000 tons of ore per day. Anaconda Copper Mining Co. acquired the controlling interest in 1923 and in the next few years modernized the plant and mine, extending operations to a nominal capacity of 490 million lb of electrolytic copper yearly by 1942. Plant production averaging 495.7 million lb of copper per year was maintained for the eight-year period extending from 1941 to 1948 inclusive. During the World War II production reached its highest level when in 1944 the output was 531.8 million lb. The maximum production for any one month was 49.6 million lb, achieved in May 1947. E. A. Cappelen Smith, consulting metallurgist for M. Guggenheim's Sons, worked out the first process for the treatment of Chuquicamata copper oxide ore about 1913, and directed a staff of 20 young engineers operating a pilot plant at Perth Amboy, N. J., on three shifts for an entire year. The copper is extracted from the oxide ore by a hydro-metallurgical treatment described in detail by T. A. Campbell in AIME Transactions, Vol. 106, Copper Metallurgy, 1933. The Oxide Plant is divided into five main operations as follows: (1) Crushing, (2) Leaching, including dechloridizing and sulphur dioxide treatment, (3) Tailing disposal, (4) Electrolytic precipitation, (5) Smelting and melting. Crushing The present Primary Crushing Plant has been in operation 25 years, during which time 4,342,112 cars of 70 tons net capacity have passed through the dumpers. The ore as received from the mine is frequently blocky and up to 5 feet in section. It is reduced to 9-in. size by two 60-in. gyratory crushers, and transported to the east and west ore bins by 60-in. conveyors. In the secondary crushing operation the ore is first reduced to 2 to 3-in. size by five standard 7-ft cone crushers and two No. 10 gyratories. This product is then reduced to 3/8-in. size by fifty-two 48-in. vertical Symons disc crushers and is transported by belt conveyors to the loading bridges from which it is charged° into the leaching vats. Conveyor belt No. 14 which serves the eight vats in the east section of the leaching plant has transported over 125 million tons of ore, which is a record for any type of conveyor. This 60-in. belt travels at a speed of 600 fpm and carries loads up to 5500 tons per hr. Leaching The ore is leached in 14 vats, averaging 13,500 short tons net capacity each. These vats are lined with a natural mastic which adequately resists the sulphuric acid leaching solutions. The leaching process as presently conducted comprises soaking the ore with successive volumes of leaching solution and spent electrolyte and withdrawing successive volumes of enriched solution from the vat to a total of approximately 3.2 million gal. The first 1.6 million gal of this volume withdrawn is called strong solution and contains about 35 parts of copper per 1000. The balance of 1.6 million gal subsequently withdrawn is stored in a

Jan 1, 1952

By Charles Barrett

METALLURGISTS are making use of the stereographic projection to a steadily increasing extent. In the last five years no less than 20 papers in American metallurgical journals alone have employed the stereographic projection; recent books on physical metallurgy, plastic deformation, X-rays and their applications, and crystal structure use it. Mineralogists have used the stereographic projection for many years in the description of symmetry classes and crystal planes, for it presents an accurate, easily understood plot of any angular relations in crystals with all unessential features eliminated (such as the accidentally deter-mined size and shape of crystal faces). In metallography and physical metallurgy the projection is much used for the analysis of markings appearing on polished grains: slip lines, twins, cracks, structures formed by precipitation, magnetic-powder patterns, etch pits, etc. Data from certain types of X-ray photograms are most conveniently analyzed by its use, particularly those for determining the orientation of single crystals or the preferred orientation of grains in an aggregate. Calculations of how to tilt or cut a crystal parallel to a certain crystallographic plane or to reflect X-rays from a certain plane are rapidly carried out. It has been adopted almost universally to the exclusion of other methods by those studying the deformation of metallic crystals, save where the accu-racy required is greater than a few tenths of a degree. Any directional property in a crystal or polycrystalline material can be shown on a stereo-graphic projection; for example, the modulus of elasticity, yield point, etc. It has been repeatedly called to our attention that there is need of all elementary explanation of the principles and methods of stereographic projection, covering all the, common applications in the field of metal-lography and physical metallurgy. The following contribution is an attempt to fill this need. The description of each method is supplemented with references to publications in which the method has been used. For convenience to the reader, these illustrative references are chiefly in American journals, particularly the publications of the American Institute of Mining and

Jan 1, 1937

By H. D. B. Wilson

THIS PAPER has resulted from a preliminary draft of a background paper prepared anonymously for the Science Council's Special Study of the Solid-Earth Sciences in Canada. The draft was circulated to eighty-four Canadian geologists; forty-eight of these responded with criticisms of the draft. All critical re-marks were considered carefully and most have been incorporated in the final paper in an attempt to balance the author's bias, although this bias undoubtedly still appears. Indications of support for a particular statement or section were also helpful, because many of these contradicted criticisms and enabled the author to judge the consensus. Thus, all criticism could not be incorporated because the referees did not agree. It is interesting that some remarks were con-sidered overstatements by some and too bland by others. The most perplexing critical comment was one which suggested a new author was needed, and went on to name the existing author as the most likely candidate.

Jan 1, 1970

By S. G. Hardcastle, C. K. Kocsis

"Worldwide, metal mines are going deeper. For example, in Canada there are six such mechanized mines planning production at 3000 m (10 000 ft). Working at such depths challenges all aspects of mining including the provision of ventilation to supply an equitable working climate for personnel and machinery.This paper explores the overall challenges of supplying ventilation in Canada’s deepest mines and how the volumes required could be minimized. This is essential because it must be remembered that ventilation and refrigeration are not only costly items to supply, but the magnitude of their cost is also very sensitive to the volume supplied. For the primary ventilation system this is obvious because of the cubic relationship between volume and cost.In deep mines, the main function of ventilation is the removal of heat transferred from the strata and generated by the mining machinery, and the air volumes supplied are designed accordingly. The second consideration is the removal of other pollutants that could be harmful to humans such as diesel and explosive fumes. However, the need for ventilation at its present design levels could be reduced. This paper discusses the implications of such technologies as: tele-remote mining and alternatives to diesel equipment on the magnitude of the volume supplied; ventilationon- demand which recognizes ventilation as a costly and limited resource; plus other aspects, such as the benefits of controlled recirculation, local cooling, and possibly heat rejection back to the strata to gain further advantage from new developments.Furthermore, this paper advances the need to be able to design ventilation systems more cost effectively and how such new advances as process simulators can be used in conjunction with ventilation simulators to explore the diverse options that could affect the air volumes required and provide more realistic economic data upon which to base design decisions."

Jan 1, 2004

By C. H. Curtis

The Esperanza mine of the Copper Division of Duval Sulphur & Potash Co. is located in the Twin Buttes District, 32 miles southwest of Tucson, Ariz. Records of mining activity in this vicinity date back to the 1850's. The New Year's Eve mine, which was last active briefly during the years of World War II, made the first actual penetration into what is now Duval's Esperanza property. Duval's exploration department became interested in the Esperanza in the fall of 1954. The first test hole was started on May 8, 1955. Two years of intensive exploration work together with metallurgical studies developed the basis for the decision to establish an operation.

Jan 11, 1961

By R. Hoffmann

THE Waelz process produces oxides of volatilizable metals from ores, metalliferous products and residues. The process was originally used for recovering zinc and lead, where tailings and residues containing those metals had accumulated at mines or smelters, but it is applicable for obtaining tin, arsenic or other volatilizable metals. It is useful when other methods of obtaining the metals from the ores or residues are too difficult or expensive or show too low a recovery. FIG. 1.-DAILY CAPACITY OF WAELZ PLANTS RUNNING OR BEING ERECTED. The Waelz process was developed in 1923 for the treatment of large calamine dumps in Upper-Silesia, which showed zinc contents of 8 to 10 per cent. and lead contents up to 3 per cent. The rapid development of the process, from the first trials up to the plants now working or in course of erection, is shown in Fig. 1. -The first industrial Waelz plant was started in 1925. Within two years the capacity of the working plants reached 700 tons material per day of 24 hr. During the year 1928 the daily capacity of the plants now at work or in course of erection will rise

Jan 1, 1928

By A. P., Svenningsen

ECONOMICAL handling of a minimum of 25,000 tons of minus 3/4-in. ore per day, grinding it to 2 per cent on 65 mesh, and effecting a high recovery of the copper at the lowest possible cost were the principal aims in the design of the new Morenci concentrating plant. Dealing with a tonnage of this magnitude, it is obvious that lost motion cannot be tolerated. When ore is carried on a conveyor an unnecessarily long distance or elevated to a greater height than necessary, or when pulp flows in a launder by a circuitous route thereby losing elevation and distance, we have lost motion which is always costly both from the standpoint of construction and operation. In addition to the 25,000 tons of ore which must be handled, 100,000 tons of water per day has to be carried through the plant in the treatment of the ore. Though water is not so difficult to handle as the ore, the combined tonnage represents a figure which could easily run into a considerable monetary loss per day if all phases of the design were not carefully followed with the idea of eliminating any unnessary handing of materials.

Jan 1, 1942

By James Camp

"During the 1950's a cement plant was rebuilt along a Missouri River bluff. The escarpmentwas composed of inter_bedded shale and limestone, typical to western Missouri. All of theraw materials needed to produce cement had been mined via room and pillar at the plantsite since the late 1800's. Portions of the mine began to fail in the late 60's., and by the mid70's M.S.H.A. declared all the areas where the lower Winterset limestone had beenremoved from the back to be ""unsafe"". M.S.H.A. explained that no work could beperformed in or above these unsafe areas unless the work itself was to render the area safe."

Jan 1, 1993

ON presenting the medalist, J.. V. W. Reynders said, in part: "Far the greatest progress in the art of steel-nuking has occurred in the production of lighter forms such as tool steels and steels entering into the moving parts of machinery generally, and particularly into the con-struction of automobiles and airplanes. In this highly specialized field in which the study of alloys and heat treatment has brought about such fundamental changes of design and practice, Dr. Mathews has achieved a ranking position. "As the technical head of the largest producer of special steels, his laboratory conclusions are frequently but a few steps removed from practical exploitation. The experimental determinations of yesterday must be sufficiently conclusive to form the basis for the specific plans of today, and to warrant commercial production tomorrow. His is not the complacent atmosphere of theoretical speculation, but one in which practice fol-lows close upon the heels of scientific research.

Jan 3, 1928

By Robert Ammon

THE purpose of this paper is to present a brief sketch of the development of this hindered-settling classifier, but primarily to show the actual results obtained in practice with the classifier working on the Butte copper ores at the Boston & Montana Concentrator, at Great Falls and the Washoe Concentrator at Anaconda. The writer has endeavored to be as brief as possible, giving only the essential figures showing the efficiency of the classifier and leaving considerable interesting information to be derived by the reader from the statistics given. The paper deals with the practical work of the classifier under the following heads: 1. Desliming 4.0-mm. primary feed, overflow from 0.07 to 0.0 mm. 2. Desliming 1.25-mm. secondary feed, overflow from 0.07 to 0.0 nun. 3. Desliming Huntington Mill discharge, overflow from 0.07 to 0.0 mm. 4. Classifying 2.5-mm. deslimed secondary feed, overflow from 1.00 to 0.07 mm. 5. Classifying 2.5-mm. deslimed primary feed, overflow from 0.75 to 0.07 mm. 6. Classifying 4.0-mm. deslimed primary feed, overflow from 0.75 to 0.07 mm. 7. Classifying middling-tailing product from roughing tables, overflow coarse tailing. 8. Classifying 2.5-mm. trommel undersize, not deslimed, overflow from 0.75 to 0.0mm. 9. Remarks on the inner feel cone. In the following pages all overflows, are given in quartz dimensions; i.e., by a 0.75-mm. overflow 'is meant an overflow whose maximum particle is a 0.75-mm. quartz grain. By the term "slime" is meant all material which will pass through a 200-mesh screen whose average opening is 0.07 mm.

Jan 8, 1913

By William Newnam

THE smelting of galena in the ore hearth has been practiced in many countries for several hundred years with varying success. In the United States the water-jacketed American hearths and the Jumbo hearths have found some favor, in the Missouri lead belt, where large quantities of non-argentiferous galena concentrates are produced. In form and method of operation the ore hearth has changed but little since its earliest conception. A detailed description of the furnace is not needed here; it has been fully described in most works on the metallurgy of lead and in many technical papers. Since its field is restricted to non-argentiferous galena, containing over 68 per cent. of lead, its .use is limited to a few districts; and, on account of certain disadvantages attending its operation, modern sintering and blast-furnace practice has nearly driven it out of the Missouri field. It is not generally known that the cost of producing pig lead is smaller by the hearth method than by sintering and blast-furnace smelting. Yet it is doubtful if any metallurgist knowing this to be true would recommend an American hearth installation-by reason of the disadvantages which will be briefly enumerated. The furnace has been limited to a length of from 4 to 5 ft., requiring for its operation two men working an 8-hr. shift as a maximum. The product per man is small; the work is hot and laborious; and the difficulty of completely removing the dust and fume has made it a notorious source of lead poisoning. Although suitable, for, operations on a small scale a large number of hearths would be required for a plant smelting 10,000 tons of 68 to 70 per cent. concentrates per month; and the number of semi-skilled laborers would be six times the number of hearths-a condition which is prohibitive. On account of the high percentage of dust and fume produced, a large flue and bag-house installation is required and, in the past, the handling and re-treatment of. this dust and fume has been a serious problem.

Jan 10, 1915

By C. E. Lawall

ONE of the most important developments in the coal industry during 1940 was the continued uptrend in the production of bituminous coal. Estimated production for the year is 450,000,000 tons, with an additional production of anthracite of 50,000,000 tons making a total of approximately 500,000,000 tons. This is an increase of 12.5 per cent over 1939. Despite an estimated decrease of about 3.5 per cent in anthracite production, all of the major coal-producing states had increases in production for 9140. The national defense program, with the consequent increase in industrial activity, undoubtedly had an important effect on the increased demand for coal.

Jan 1, 1941

By Thomas V. Falkie, R. Venkataramani

Underground coal winning operations can broadly be classified as conventional, continuous, and longwall mining. In conventional mining, the operations of cutting, drilling, blasting, loading and hauling, and roof support are performed in that sequence in each working face in a work area. The major difference between continuous and conventional mining is that the coal is cut and loaded by a continuous miner in the former, thereby combining the unit operations of cutting, drilling, shooting, and loading into one. Longwall applications have been viewed with great interest in recent years, and although at the end of 1970 there were only 37 longwall installations in the U. S. with combined production of less than 4 percent of underground total, there is no question about the growth potential of longwall in the United States. Increased capacity, versatility, and power characterize continuous miners today. Although continuous miners have outsold conventional gathering-arm type loading machines for some years, the latter, in the new extra-high capacity types, are continuing to find wide use. Whether the mining system is continuous or conventional, the haulage units may include six-wheel articulated shuttle cars, tractor-trailer units, or extensible belt and bridge-conveyor systems, all tending to increase the productivity of the face units. The decision as to which to choose - continuous or conventional mining - is complicated, and both systems are capable of high production rates. Most continuous miners in use today have a revolving pick-mounted drum to cut the coal and a gathering arm loading unit. Functionally, there is little difference between the loading unit in a

Sep 1, 1972

By C. F. Kelley

IT is no new experience for the distinguished subject of this presentation to be the recipient of honors conferred, to be eulogized for successful accomplish-ment, or to hear expressed with sincerity the admira-tion of his fellows. The objectives of his professional endeavor have taken him to many fields; the scenes of his labors have varied from the most remote corners of the globe to those which are close at hand; the universality of his experience is an epitome of modern life, impossible of occurrence in any other era. His career not only embodies to an unrivaled degree the opportunities of the contemporaneous epoch, but also exemplifies in the manner in which they have been transformed into successful accomplishments the pos-sibilities of our age. The many-sided career of our medallist is a composite. Tonight we deal chiefly with its phase for which this medal has been bestowed.

Jan 3, 1928

By T. V. Moore

DURING 1910, crude-oil production in the United States reached a record level averaging about 3.700,000 barrels daily. Export declined sharply while imports increased with the result that large quantities of crude oil were run to storage during the year. Imports consisted largely of residual fuel oil brought in from South America bit because of a shortage of that product in this country and of Mexican crude. The price of petroleum products followed the declining trend of the last three year resulting in serious disparity between crude and product prices. This condition was aggravated in some areas by the increasing production of distillate by recycling operations and by the high tanker rates prevalent in the last two months of the year. As a result two small purchasers found it necessary to reduce crude-oil price in the Corpus Christie area of Texas.

Jan 1, 1941