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By H. C. Miller

For nearly a score of years the American petroleum industry has faced the problem of maintaining its economic structure while oil -producing potentialities greatly exceeded the increasing market demand for oil and its products . However , the combination of maximum civilian demand with rising defense requirements caused an all - time peak in crudeoil production in the latter half of 1941 , with a daily production (as estimated by the Bureau of Mines ) of 4,139,000 barrels in December - an increase of 16 percent over the daily production of 3,573,000 barrels in December 1940. In the event of a long war , a continuing , steady, and adequate supply of petroleum and its products for military and required civilian needs is essential, and the efficiency of recovery of oil from natural underground reservoirs will have to be maximum. Whereas it may not be possible to increase production in some fields , the output from others may have to be drawn at a much faster rate than formerly . More than 10 years ' experience in operating oil fields under proration control has demonstrated to petroleum engineers that some of the efficiency of recovery of oil from reservoir sands and rocks is sacrificed if the oil and gas are withdrawn at too . rapid a rate . As petroleum is an irreplaceable natural resource for which suitable substitutes probably will not be available in desired quantities for many years , any producing method that jeopardizes the quantity of oil that may be recovered from underground reservoirs must be considered at this time of declared war against aggressor nations as conflicting with the best interests of national defense . At best, the efficient recovery of oil is a complex problem . It involves not only a knowledge and application of the fundamentals of fluid flow through porous mediums, but the sources of energy responsible for the movement of oil and gas through reservoir sands and porous rocks to wells must be known to determine the best practices for extracting these hydrocarbons . Reservoir energy is of two kinds - (1 ) water under hydrostatic head underlying the oil in the extraneous parts of the reservoir system and ( 2 ) natural gas under pressure as "free " gas in the reservoir or in solution in the oil . Inasmuch as the efficiency of oil recovery depends largely on the manner in which reservoir energy is used to move oil through reservoir sands and porous rocks to wells , optimum practices for withdrawing the oil cannot be determined until it has been established that the oil in the reservoirs is being forced to wells by an internal gas expansion, by a natural water drive , or by a combination of gas expansion and water drive . There is a fundamental difference in the performance characteristics of gas - expansion and water - drive reservoirs . In a strictly gas - expansion reservoir the energy available to move oil and gas through the porous formations to wells results solely from gas pressure , which is maximum when the reservoir is tapped by the first well . Pressures decline as oil and gas are withdrawn ; consequently, the energy available for moving oil and gas through the oil - bearing formations to wells decreases with production . Curtailing the oil - production rate or shutting in gas - expansion reservoirs entirely will not act to replenish energy previously used in the production of oil and gas ; in their operation , therefore , it is especially important not to waste reservoir energy - the production of oil with high gas : oil ratios will be reflected in lower ultimate recoveries of oil .

Apr 1, 1942

By W. D. B. Motter

DURING the early development of blasting with liquid oxygen explosives the trend of experimentation was towards increasing the effectiveness of the explosive. Its characteristic of becoming inert after evaporation of the oxygen content made a strong appeal from the standpoint of safety, especially with missed holes. It later became apparent, however, with practical use of this explosive, that LOX lacked certain other safety characteristics. As its effectiveness was increased, it became more subject to detonation by impact. The object of this paper is to show the steps taken by one operating company to achieve greater safety in the large-scale handling of liquid oxygen explosives.

Jan 1, 1933

By A Parbhakar-Fox, S C. Dominy

The prediction of acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD) from mine waste materials is critically important during all stages of the mine value chain. However, to determine such geoenvironmental characteristics static and kinetic testing of individual waste units must be performed on representative samples. The importance of sample selection cannot be underestimated; it is the single most critical aspect of any geoenvironmental investigation. Poor sampling techniques and inadequate sample selection will contribute to excessive variance, difficulties in interpretation and incorrect assessment. By undertaking mesotextural characterisation based on hyperspectral mineralogical data (with sulfur assay data if available), opportunities to improve sampling strategies are presented. Such data will inform the selection of samples for low-cost total sulfur, paste pH and geoenvironmental logging, which collectively will allow for accurate AMD forecasting and improved sampling practices to be achieved. Once sampled, robust quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) protocols must be developed where the use of international certified reference standards become obligatory. This is currently not practised, resulting in inter-laboratory discrepancies when undertaking waste classification. Further improvements in geoenvironmental characterisation testing lies in the adoption of blended static testing protocols, whereby blends of waste materials can be efficiently tested so as to give an early forecast as to whether they will produce acidic or metal-laden drainage. Such information is integral in developing a waste schedule that will allow for a non-acid forming waste landform to be constructed right from the start of the operational phase. Ultimately, improvements in this discipline lie in technological innovations with regards to mineralogical characterisation, and by offering geoscience and minerals engineering students a competent education in the discipline. Collectively, this will empower a step-change in AMD prediction and waste handling, and will make the realisation of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals a reality, rather than a dream.CITATION:Parbhakar-Fox, A and Dominy, S C, 2017. Sampling and blending in geoenvironmental campaigns – current practice and future opportunities, in Proceedings Eighth World Conference on Sampling and Blending , pp 45–54 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2017

By H. E. Peterson

A study was undertaken by the Bureau of Mines to develop a simple, reliable test for field detection of selenium in rocks and soils. Two methods are described for qualitative detection of selenium, dependent upon its form of occurrence and the presence of interfering constituents in the sample. Both methods involve fusion of the sample in a test tube to form elemental selenium that will volatilize and condense as a red deposit on the cooler upper portion of the test tube. The methods are sensitive to 10 parts per million, (p.p.m.) equivalent to 0.001 percent, and can be made semiquantitative by using suitable standard samples. INTRODUCTION Although selenium is widely distributed in the United States, the known deposits are either so small or so low grade that they cannot be processed economically for selenium alone-4/ At present, commercial production is a byproduct of the smelting and refining of base-metal ores, particularly copper.5/ About 0.75 pound of selenium is recovered per ton of electrolytic copper, and small amounts are recovered by special treatment of assorted smelter dusts and fume products. Since selenium is a strategic metal in short supply, new sources are being sought by both Government and private interests.

Jan 1, 1957

By F. S. Crawford

Although it may be impracticable to adopt standard methods of safe working in all branches of mining, and although it may be impossible to establish a standard for each class of work at each mine, some of the iron-mining companies in the Lake Superior district have found that by adopting certain standard ways of performing certain of their operations they insure both more efficient and safer working conditions. Many companies have adopted the idea that the safe way of doing things is also the most efficient and economical way, and, through the medium of their safety conferences they are trying to find the safest way, and the most efficient way, of performing practically every operation about the mines. This activity will, undoubtedly, be continued at every operation which uses this method of doing safety work, because in the advance of industry changes must be made in the results required from time to time. A review of the safety standards and safety suggestions which have been arrived at by some of the companies in this the greatest iron-mining district in the world, will be of value to companies who are interested in improving the safety of their working conditions. So that attention may be directed to the methods in use, rather than to individual companies, all names have been omitted and companies are referred to only by letter.

Aug 1, 1931

By Jeanne B. Percival, Paul Ramaekers, Charles W. Jefferson, Pat A. Hunt, Eric G. Potter, Katherine E. Venance, William Davis, Sean A. Bosman

"A 10-cm thick clay-rich layer near the top of the Manitou Falls Formation of the Athabasca Group is unusual in its breccia texture, alteration, and detrital mineral composition relative to the adjacent overlying and underlying sedimentary beds. This layer is composed of angular quartz grains set in an illite >> kaolinite + dickite matrix. Deformed clay-rich fragments within the layer have very similar mineral assemblages. The presence of euhedral accessory minerals including Ti-oxides and aluminophosphatesulphate minerals points to a diagenetic/hydrothermal origin. The presence of individual grains of Kfeldspar and amphibole is unusual relative to the typical Athabasca quartz arenite; originally, these minerals were probably included in detrital quartz and subsequently liberated during fracturing. The textures and alteration characteristics suggest that this layer is a hydraulically-fractured unit, which has experienced hydrothermal fluid alteration - a possible pathway distally related to uranium mineralization Une couche argileuse de 10 cm d’epaisseur pres du sommet de la Formation de Manitou Falls du Groupe d'Athabasca est remarquable par sa texture brechique, son alteration et la composition de ses mineraux detritiques qui different de ceux des couches sedimentaires sus- et sous-jacente. Cette couche est composee de grains de quartz angulaires dans une matrice composee d’illite >> kaolinite + dickite. Des fragments deformes riches en argile dans cette couche presentent des assemblages mineraux tres similaires. La presence de mineraux accessoires idiomorphes dont des oxydes de titane et des aluminophosphates-sulphates suggere que ces derniers ont une origine diagenetique / hydrothermale. La presence de grains de feldspath-K et d'amphibole est inhabituelle comparativement aux arenites quartziques typiques de l’Athabasca; initialement, ces mineraux constituaient probablement des inclusions dans le quartz detritique qui ont ete subsequemment liberees pendant la fracturation. Les textures et les caracteristiques de l'alteration suggerent que cette unite a subi une fracturation hydraulique et a ete alteree par un fluide hydrothermal - possiblement en lien avec les effets distaux de mise en place de la mineralisation en l'uranium."

Jan 1, 2013

By H. W. Sohns

A retort was constructed in which fine particles of shale, entrained in steam or other gaseous media, could be retorted at controlled temperatures and residence times and the effects of retorting variables upon quality and quantity of products could be determined. Studies of the effects of temperature upon products obtained from Green River (Piceance Creek Basin, Colo.) and Chattanooga (Tenn.) oil shales were completed. The feasibility of using the retort to process a shale of extremely high moisture content from Brazil also was investigated. Air was used as the entraining medium in a series of studies in which combustion of some of the products of retorting within the retort tube supplied a major portion of the process heat. In another series, shale oil from a conventional retort was cracked thermally to obtain data for comparison with results of retorting en-trained shale. In still another series the effects of rates of steam flow and solids feed upon rates of heat transfer from the furnace to the process stream were studied. Crushed quartz rather than oil shale was charged to the retort in this series. A study was begun in which raw shale was partly retorted, the products separated, and the partially retorted shale recharged to the retort. The shale was to have been recycled until it was completely retorted in an effort to improve oil yield by recycle retorting; however, the project was terminated before the investigation was completed.

Jan 1, 1959

By Alessandro Molinari

In recent times, coke oven machines are acquiring a more prominent role in the coke making process. Apart from the traditional handling of the coal and coke flow, nowadays these machines are also deeply involved in all environmental and process control aspects. Paul Wurth coke oven machines have been developed by Schalke to meet the most recent requirements in terms of emissions control, automation, instrumentation, operability and maintainability. In CSP, Ceará, the new coke making plant represents the status of the art of the technologies applied to the whole coking process; starting from the Coke Oven Batteries and the Gas Treatment Plant developed by Paul Wurth up to the Coke Machines supplied by Schalker Eisenhütte, whose technology is now part of Paul Wurth coke making products portfolio. Present paper describes the plant configuration focusing on Coke Oven Machines and the key factors which are guarantying the success of the project.

Aug 16, 2017

By Oliver Bowles

The exingencies of a world war have brought home to the American public, especially the people of the. Eastern States, the urgent need for conserving fuel. Transportation problems in the East have created an unprecedented situation wherein fuel-oil supplies are greatly restricted, and the consequent increase in demand for coal further complicates the problem of transporting and storing that commodity. People should awaken to the need for utilizing every possibly means of conserving to fuel, even to the extent of reducing the temperature in their homes.

Jan 1, 1942

By Zay Jeffries

AN acute current shortage of copper, with the prospect that conditions may become worse, indicated by Office of Production Management information. Present estimates of copper requirement for defense indicate that nearly all the available metal will be required in the future for this purpose. Severe dislocations are, expected, but the objective is to distribute the copper available for civilian use in such a manner as to minimize these dislocations. The advisory committee on metals and minerals has been asked for a suggestions which may be helpful in meeting this situation.\

Jan 1, 1941

By Frank E. Chase, John Rusnak, David Newman

During the past quarter century, coal mine geologists have evolved from providing a qualitative description of drill core and coal reserves into quantitative geotechnical specialists who bridge the gap between geology and engineering. In the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, hazard prediction mapping was in its infancy. At best, hazard maps identified rudimentary structures and conditions such as stream valley locations, sandstone/shale transition zones, and lineaments. A “technical disconnect” had existed between geologists and mining engineers as each profession operated largely independent of each other. Engineers did not readily integrate geology and geologic conditions, with the exception of coal thickness, into mine planning. Geologists were relied upon for reserve estimates and did not participate in mine planning or design. The employment and market slump of the 1980’s and 1990’s combined with mining more challenging reserves mandated that this gap be bridged and forced geologists to learn to speak more “numerically” to engineers so they could be understood. The purpose of this paper is to describe the procedures and thought processes used by coal mine geologists when determining various mineability and reserve extraction feasibility issues. The paper will also address underground geologic hazard mapping and prediction techniques. To achieve these objectives, the opinions and experiences of leading coal mine geologists, geotechnical and strata control specialists across the United States were solicited.

By D. Sediako

Excessive residual stress in Al engine blocks may result in cylinder distortion which reduces engine operating efficiency. As such, neutron diffraction was used to measure residual strain along the Fe liners and Al, in the hoop, radial and axial orientations with respect to the cylinder axis, at the cylinder interbore region. Residual stresses were subsequently calculated using generalized Hooke's law and related to the microstructure along the cylinder bridge. The results suggest that the residual stresses in the Al interbore region are tensile and increased with depth in the axial direction of the cylinder. The increase in residual stress at the bottom of the cylinder coincides with a finer and more uniform microstructure in this region of the cylinder. The refinement in microstructure at the bottom of the cylinder likely increased alloy strength, thereby decreasing this section's susceptibility to distortion. This study successfully quantified the residual stress profiles in a heat treated engine block and related the stress profiles to an as-cast engine block.

Jan 1, 2011

By AIME AIME

The Washoe plant, 1 in Anaconcla. Mont., together with the local street-railroad, ranches a. foundry and machine-shop a brick-plant and the Montana hotel, form a property under one management; to which should be added the mines in Butte owned by the company, from which part of the ore-supply of the plant comes. The Anaconda Copper Mining Co., controlled by the Amalgamated Copper Co., was reorganized under the laws of Montana in 1893. A map of the plant, showing the numerous departments and illustrating the details of tracks, pipe-lines, and charging-stations for compressed-air locomotives, is given in Fig. 1.

Jul 1, 1906

By T. Field, N. D. Nxumalo

Since the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886, mining has been at the centre of South Africa’s development. Although mining continues to contribute significantly to the country’s economy, it is a temporary land-use activity, and mine closure is inevitable. This paper reviews mine closure planning at Tshikondeni coal mine, which commenced in 2014 with the initiation of mine closure. The review presents the mine closure processes undertaken at the Tshikondeni coal mine as regulated by South Africa’s principal mining legislation, the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002, and other relevant regulatory frameworks. To compile this review: (1) A desktop study was conducted; (2) empirical data was collected through one-on-one interviews with research participants at Tshikondeni coal mine; and 3) physical observations were made of the rehabilitation at various mine operations within the Tshikondeni coal mine complex. Research participants consisted of mine officials from different departments, i.e., human resources, and environmental, social, and business strategy, who were directly involved with the Tshikondeni coal mine closure. A questionnaire with semi-structured questions was developed. It was utilised to acquire a better understanding of mine closure planning at Tshikondeni coal mine and identify mine closure processes that aim to achieve post-mining land uses and align with Tshikondeni coal mine’s post-closure strategy, namely the Tshikondeni Legacy Project, with a post-closure strategy that has the potential to transition a mining economy to an eco-tourism economy that can preserve livelihoods and selfreliant communities.

Dec 15, 2025

By Jens Gutzmer, Helmut Mischo, George Barakos

"It has been nearly eight years since rare-earth elements (REE) became the subject of frontpage headlines. It was when the controversial Chinese export policy for these critical commodities was epitomized in a maritime border dispute with Japan in September 2010 that resulted in the big REE crisis and price spike of 2011 (Barakos et al., 2016c; Mancheri, 2015).The world was dismayed, especially in REE-importing countries such as the United States that was, and still is, totally dependent on Chinese production and exports (Barakos et al, 2016c; Kennedy, 2015). The short-lived alarm initiated a treasure hunt by way of exploration for REE deposits all over the world. The continuously growing demand on the one hand, and the Chinese sovereignty of the REEmarket on the other, led the rest of the world to explore their own REE resources. In just a few years, more than 400 projects were initiated to explore REE deposits outside of China (ERECON, 2015; Goodenough, 2016).The prices of REE, however, dropped rapidly in late 2017 and were in six-year lows, before the 2011 crisis (Barakos, 2017). The viability of even major established producers is being challenged, not to mention the development prospects of potential REEmarket entrants (Barakos et al., 2016b; Rollat et al., 2016). Production cutbacks and industry consolidation in China have impelled REE market experts to forecast that prices have already reached their lowest point and have nowhere to go but up (Adamas, 2015; Roskill 2015). Yet, expectations for increased REE prices are limited and drastic changes are unlikely to happen in the near future, as there is still excess supply in the overall REE market (Barakos, 2017). Nevertheless, the low prices of rare earths are not the only reason that potential producers are struggling to enter the global REE market. Among other parameters, the separation process of the individual elements seems to be the most important factor, as it is technically challenging and expensive to build and to operate."

Jan 8, 2018

By David Mast, Irwan Halim, Brian Hagan, Kaveh Talebi, Jason Edberg, Amanda Foote

On June 14, 2023 Jay Dee Contractors’ Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) “Phoenix” holed through and completed mining the second drive of the I-75 Segment 3 Storage and Drainage Tunnel. Completion of the tunnel came only after overcoming several challenges, including a groundwater intrusion event which deposited thousands of cubic yards of wet ground material into the tunnel. This paper will discuss the events which delayed completion of the tunnel by over nine months, the risk management and construction approaches assumed by the Design-Build team during bid, several challenges faced by Design-Build teams when building stormwater resilience tunnels using traditional Department of Transportation standards, and recommendations for improving risk allocation and proposal documents for future similar Design-Build tunnel projects.

Jun 23, 2024

By J. G. Thompson

IRON, iron everywhere, but hardly a particle of pure unadulterated iron for the metallurgist to use as a base for the protean characteristics that he develops in the alloys of iron-the modern steels. Iron, next to aluminum the most abundant metal in the crust of the earth; one of the oldest metals known to man and serving him as the most indispensable metal in both war and peace; yet man's knowledge of its properties is based on specimens that are not pure and hence probably differ considerably in their properties from the truly pure metal. Purification of iron has brought about startling changes in its electrical and magnetic properties and has modified its behavior in changing its crystal form with temperature, the basis of the heat-treatment of iron. So both the research metallurgist and the metallurgist of the steel plant are intrigued by the possibilities that might unfold were 100 per cent pure iron available in sufficient quantities to determine its properties.

Jan 1, 1940

By G. W. Murrie

A geologic study of the Mary Lee Group of coalbeds in the Black Warrior coal basin was undertaken to examine coal stratigraphy and determine regional trends and extent of the coalbeds. The area investigated encompasses 835 square miles in Jefferson, Walker, and Tuscaloosa Counties, Ala. More than 700 core logs were used to construct a structure map, coal, interval, and overburden isopachs, and cross sections. There is evidence that structure affected sedimentation. Coalbed isopachs indicate the Mary Lee Group was deposited in fluvial-deltaic and low-lying coastal plain environments. The Mary Lee coalbed is the only coalbed which is continuous throughout the area, commonly with two benches which have a combined thickness of 2 to 12 feet. The Mary Lee coalbed changes rank in the basin from high-through medium-to low-volatile coal. The methane gas potential of the Mary Lee Group coals is estimated to be greater than 1 trillion cubic feet. There is an excellent correlation between the orientation of surface cleats with those measured underground in the Mary Lee coalbed. The face cleats roughly parallel the axes of the area's folds and trend northeast-southwest.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. Harrington

Fire is always a serious-menace, whether in a residential or in an industrial region; in wartime it is particularly damaging in an industrial plant. The mining industry is especially vulnerable, as its plants are generally more or less isolated front centers of population and do not have access to modern fire-fighting equipment; moreover, owing to the transitory rapture of most mines, their surface structures; are often relatively flimsy and flammable.. Trained firemen seldom are available at or near mining plants to teach the fundamentals of fire-fighting to local fire brigades, with the result that efficiency in combating actual fires is lacking. Often the attitude "it can't happen here" is held by the management of a mining property, unless the plant has suffered a serious fire; even then lapse of time is very likely to induce forgetfulness as to the possible hazards. The necessity for producing metals for the prosecution of this war has increased management's responsibility. Whereas heretofore the loss of a plant or mill by fire meant merely monetary less to the stockholder of the company, now the national interest is affected, in that the nation suffers from loss of production of minerals indispensable for war purposes.

Jan 1, 1943

By Christopher Gammons

In developing countries throughout the world, gold ores are being processed by mercury amal-gamation, a technique long banned in the U.S. - unless a retort operation is used for mercury recovery - due to mercury toxicity and its effects on the environment. Amalgamation is a simple process that involves contacting a ground, slurried concentrate or ore with mercury in a slightly agitated vessel, usually for several hours, The amalgamated mercury is separated by gravity and then filtered through a fine cloth to collect the gold amalgam as a sponge, which is then fired to remove the final remnants of mercury and produce high quality gold. However, in Peru and other developing countries in South America and throughout the world, tailings are simply discarded into uncontrolled drainages and ponds and the sponge is fired in the open air. Clearly, in this case, environmental friendly and, to make matters worse, is typically conducted by family members of all ages without proper protection. Furthermore, the technique is inefficient, yielding approximately 50% gold recovery. For the past two years, faculty members from Montana Tech in Butte, MT, USA and the Universidad Nactonal del Altiplano in Puno, Peru have teamed to study the La Rinconada Mine Complex located in southern Peru approximately 100 kilometers north of Lake Titicaca and 25 kilometers west of Bolivia. The mining complex is over 5,000 meters above sea level and exists at the foot of a receding glacier in the Andes Mountains. A suite of soil and water samples collected in 2001 documented extensive Hg contamination in the Rinconada area [1]. The present paper summa¬rizes a follow-up investigation in July-2002, in which water samples were collected at numerous locations along the 200 km length of the Rio Ramis, from the Rinconada mine com¬plex to Lake Titicaca, In addition, we report new results of Hg analyses of fish from Lake Titi¬caca, The results of this study have relevance to safety and health concerns for the miners as well as people in downstream communities.

Jan 1, 2003