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By V. R. Garfias

Principal events in petroleum operations of Mexico during 1934 have been the completion of three producing wells in the Poza Rica area and the plans for the expansion of operations of the Cia. de Petroleos de Mexico, S.A. (Petromex). Production for 1934 is estimated at close to 38,000,000 bbl., an increase of 4,000,000 bbl. over the previous year; an increase due in large part to the successful development in Poza Rica. The output of the South fields (Golden Lane) and Tehuantepec fields also increased somewhat during the year. Production of natural gasoline increased from 382,000 to 431,000 bbl. in 1934. Crude run in local refineries is estimated at 26,000,000bbl., some4,000,000bbl. more than the previous year. Exclusive of bunker fuel exports totaled 24,000,000 bbl., or 3,000,000 more than in 1933. Domestic consumption increased approximately 500,000,bbl. during the year, reaching a total of close to 13,600,000 bbl., exclusive of ships' bunkers. A total of 148 wells were completed as compared to 91 in 1933 and 40 in 1932. In proven areas, 133 completions resulted in 54 producers and 79 failures. The 15 wildcats drilled during 1934 gave no encouraging results. Seven of these were located in the border zone of northeastern Mexico; three tested possible northeast extensions of the Northern fields; two were drilled for possible extensions of the "Golden Lane" and three were completed in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Fields Northern Fields (Heavy Oil District).—There were 34 producing wells and 71 failures completed in the Northern fields, as compared to 20 producers and 20 failures in 1933. Practically all new producers were drilled to the shallower San Felipe formation, while wells drilled to the deeper Tamasopo limestone encountered salt water. Production of the field totaled 11,890,000 bbl., a decrease of 7.5 per cent from the previous year. Acid treatment was attempted during the year in seven wells

Jan 1, 1935

By Francis M. Rice

Before the world-wide depression, the primary purpose of most blast-furnace operators was to produce a maximum tonnage of pig iron per day for each furnace in blast. Some attention was paid to the conservation of labor and raw materials, but the idea was well established that low-cost pig iron was attainable only when each furnace was producing a high tonnage. After the depression had set in, the picture changed considerably. Each blast-furnace operator was forced to run his plant in a manner that best fitted the economical set-up of his company. A great deal of thought was expended on the different methods of operation, always with the idea of making each product in a way that would best serve his company financially. Because of this abnormal condition, the blast-furnace man was compelled to indulge in various practices of which many had been believed to be next to impossible up to that time. The ultimate purpose of these innovations was either one or a combination of the following: 1. To produce only enough pig iron for immediate consumption at a minimum cost. 2. To produce gas for boiler or mill use to supplant some higher priced fuel. 3. To consume the coke produced at the coke plant, which was often viewed as a byproduct. 4. To protect the cash position of the company. These conditions were met by diverse methods, some of which were: 1. Slow or decreased wind. In some instances the blast blown was held as low as 25 per cent of the normal volume. 2. Intermittent operation, in which the furnaces were shut down or "fanned" at frequent intervals.

Jan 1, 1935

By Howard Smith

OF late considerable experimental and, theoretical interest has been shown in the rates of transformation from a single phase, usually a supercooled solid solution, into one or more phases. Such reactions may involve both diffusion and transformation of the major constituent, as in iron alloys, or it may simply involve diffusion, as in superstructure forma-tion and in age-hardening systems. Most of the work has been confined to ferrous alloys1-9t although two investigations have been made on copper alloys10,11. That such work may be of considerable, practical importance has been demonstrated by Bain12, by the workers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Eisen-forschung13,14, and by the everyday use of precipitation and age-harden-inn principles15. Experiments in this country have generally followed Davenport and Bain's technique of rapid supercooling followed by isothermal treatment. In Germany16,17 the work has been extended to the study of the influence of accurately controlled and measured rates of cooling. The work on steel indicates that there are two subcritical temperature ranges where reaction starts sooner after quenching and proceeds at a more rapid rate than at other temperatures. At subcritical temperatures above Ar" where reaction is dependent upon atomic migration there is a period of time of which the length depends upon the alloy content and the temperature, before which no reaction has been detected. Daven-port and Bain1 find that different sorts of atoms in solid solution in gamma iron affect the length of this "prereaction" period differently, manganese

Jan 1, 1935

By Edmund S. Leaver

The selection of a process for treating a gold ore is governed primarily by the characteristics of the ore under consideration. The form in which the gold occurs, its mode of association with other minerals, and the size and surface condition of the gold particles are important factors which influence materially the choice of procedure for recovering gold. A knowledge of these characteristics may be obtained by microscopic and chemical methods combined with experimental testing. Cyanidation and amalgamation, either alone or in conjunction with flotation and gravity methods, are peculiarly adapted to the treatment of gold ores, especially those of relatively low grade. Gold alloys readily with mercury provided both present clean surfaces. The presence of oils and grease, antimony and arsenic minerals, or soluble sulphides have a harmful effect. Very small, flaky particles of gold frequently are lost in amalgamation because of noncontact with the mercury. Fine gold in pyrite, or gold having rusty or contaminated surfaces, is often lost for the same reason. Grinding or some form of abrasion sometimes removes surface films of iron oxide or substances of a similar nature, and alkalies or other chemicals are used to remove grease. Gold is readily soluble in cyanide solution, and this method of treatment is particularly effective in the recovery of gold from the tailings resulting from other types of concentration procedure. Cyanide solutions must contact the gold to insure recovery, and the porosity of the ore treated and the fineness of grinding required are important governing factors. The use of lime in cyanidation is necessary to protect the cyanide, to precipitate undesirable substances, and to settle slimes. Certain substances in ores are harmful in cyanidation; chief among them are those that combine with cyanide, forming cyanides, and carbon which precipitates gold from solution. Arsenic and antimony are also harmful if present in sufficient quantity. These and other difficulties encountered in cyaniding certain ores often are overcome by roasting prior to leaching. Zinc dust is used almost universally for precipitating precious metals from cyanide solutions. The refining and melting of the product may be accomplished by oxidizing the zinc before melting it in graphite pots with fluxes, although sulphuric acid is now used largely to remove the zinc before melting. Straight cyanidation practice is being replaced by flotation as a major process, followed by cyanide leaching of the tailings, but amalgamation is still needed as a primary process for the recovery of coarse gold before either flotation or cyanidation.

Jan 1, 1935

Jan 1, 1935

Terminology Relating to Nonmetallic Elements in Metals. BY T D YENSEN AND C H HERTY, JR (Tech Pub 555, Metals Tech, June 6100 words ) The paper gives arguments for confining the term "gases in metals" to its proper sphere and recommends the name "nonmetallic elements in metals" as a general title of the subject dealing with: (1) nonmetallic elements introduced into metals unintentionally or for various specific purposes; (2) phenomena occurring in metals caused by non¬metallic elements It also recommends a classification of the subject in which "gases in metals" occupies a definite, logical place

Jan 1, 1935

By J. B. Austin, R. H. H. Pierce

IN developing a consistent picture of the thermal expansion of the commercial chromium steels, which cover a range of, carbon contents, it is desirable to know the expansion in the limiting case of the binary, carbon-free, iron-chromium alloys. We have, therefore, determined the thermal expansion of a series of five special alloys, ranging in chromium content from 3 to 10.5 per cent, with not more than 0.03 per cent carbon, over a temperature range extending beyond the transformation region; this low carbon content enables us to draw reasonably reliable conclusions as to the behavior of the carbon-free system. Moreover, the measurements serve to determine the beginning and the end of the alpha-gamma transformation; and they emphasize once more the fact that a transformation temperature determined by any method in which the specimen is .cooled at an appreciable rate is apt to be seriously in error, particularly if the metal contains a transformation-retarding element such as chromium or managanese. The lag, or undercooling, observed at the ?-a transformation is explained in terms of the influence of temperature on transformation velocity; the rather unusual shape of the ? loop is attributed to a change with temperature and with composition of the distribution of chromium between the alpha-iron and gamma-iron solid solutions. The exact composition of the alloys which were obtained through the courtesy of Dr. W. Rohn, of the Heraeus Vakuumschmelze A-G., is given in Table 1. Determinations of the linear thermal expansion and of transformation temperature were carried out in the vacuum dilatometer previously described,1 using a rate of heating and of cooling of 3.0° to 3.5° per minute unless otherwise stated. Magnetic susceptibility, which was measured in studying the rate of transformation, was determined with a magnetic balance, which also has. been described.2

Jan 1, 1935

By R. W. Moore, A. B. Kinzel

Although the iron-carbon diagram has undergone many changes in the last 20 years, the region below the eutectoid line and up to approximately 1.7 per cent carbon has been little affected. This region is generally considered to consist of cenlentite and ferrite. Graphite has been noted occasionally in the hypereutectoid steel region, and the ready formation of graphite nodules in malleable cast iron is a phenomenon difficult to interpret in the light of cementite, supposedly stable at sub-eutectoid temperatures. In this case the graphite formation has been partly explained by the presence of silicon, and many have believed that silicon acts to change the stable state rather than to accelerate reactions so as to arrive at the stable state in a briefer period of time. Consideration of this phenomenon indicates that cementite is not the stable phase in the temperature composition zone referred to. In the course of examining a low-carbon steel tube taken from a petroleum cracking still, which had been in service for approximately three years at temperatures somewhat below the eutectoid temperature, observations were made that shed light on this entire subject. The tube in question analyzed:' C, 0.15 per cent; Mn, 0.49; Si, 0.02; S, 0.023; P, 0.015. The microstructure of the tube after service is shown In Figs. 1 and 2. From these it is evident that cementite as such is absent, and that in its place nodular graphite has been formed. In order to check this observation further, samples taken from the tube were heated at 850" C. for varying periods of time. The small samples were put into a large hot furnace, and the total time is recorded. The structure of the sample after 5 min. at 850" C. is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, and the nest of pearlite surrounding the graphite nodules is most satisfactory evidence of the character of the nodules. As the length of time of heating at this temperature increases, the pearlitic zone increases, with final restoration

Jan 1, 1935

By Paul D. Merica, W. A. Mudge

ONE of the most prominent features of our present-day industrial development is the ever-increasing demand put upon materials of construction Engineering ingenuity, within the past 25 years, has been unusually active, and in some fields at least engineers frankly say that engineering design has progressed as far as the limitations imposed by the properties of the present materials of construction will permit. Consequently, they are today demanding improvement in their working materials and seeking new ones, through the aid of which the present limitations of design may be overcome The activity of this search is evident in all fields, but it is particularly so in that of structural materials required to be resistant to corrosion The corrosion resistance of metals and alloys is never absolute and all-inclusive, a particular alloy will withstand some corrosive conditions well and fall utterly under others Furthermore, other properties, physical and mechanical, required in conjunction with corrosion resistance vary considerably for different commercial applications One wants a soft, ductile sheet metal resistant to atmospheric corrosion, another, a high-strength alloy resistant to sulfuric acid The last decade has witnessed active and definite progress in the development of high-strength, corrosion-resisting alloys In June, 1924, a symposium by the American Society for Testing Materials, on Corrosion-Resistant, Heat-resistant and Electrical-resistance Alloys, disclosed no less. than 60 commercial alloys the properties of which were described as being suitable for industrial service where corrosion resistance

Jan 1, 1935

By George Holderer

THE relation between man-hours of labor and production may be correlated for any industry, and already it has been widely used in piece-work studies. It is not in general use as yet for recording labor efficiency of an enterprise or an industry. An exception to this is the Cement Institute, which tabulates the man-hours used in each operation and FIG. 1.-LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IN COPPER MINING. thus gets the total man-hours per barrel of cement. The writer knows of one steel company that keeps a complete record of man-hours for every operation from mining the ore to finishing the product. No doubt many others find the information useful, and such a study could be of value to the mineral industries.

Jan 1, 1935

By C. C. Henning

IN any line of human activity logical handling requires an amount of attention to each phase that is in keeping with the importance of that phase. In the complex and rapidly changing field of modern ferrous metallurgy it is difficult to allot the proper degree of attention to the various subjects, and it is not surprising that one or more subjects of major importance should for a time be neglected. Bessemer steel is a good example of a neglected subject. It is largely taken for granted, inferior physical quality is assumed for it, and there is a lack of interest in its technical development and commercial application. Availability of supply is limited. In spite of this technical indifference, limited source and lack of commercial exploitation, bessemer steel con-stitutes a large volume of tonnage in daily use. There is a fairly prev-alent idea even among technical people that bessemer steel survives mostly because of low cost and by reason of a dwindling residue of applica-tions sufficiently common to permit of its use. The difference in cost between bessemer and open-hearth steel is governed largely by the relative cost of manufacture of pig iron and the market price of steel scrap. During the past four years there have been long periods of time during which the price of steel scrap was low enough so that open-hearth steel was considerably lower in manufacturing cost than bessemer. As to application, it may be pointed out that thousands of tons of this material in the form of bessemer screw steel are applied for moving parts in automotive and other equipment. Some forging work and considerable heat treating, particularly carburizing, is performed on this grade.

Jan 1, 1935

By C. G. Williams

IN preparing this paper on Canadian mine taxation, there has been no attempt to detail the requirements of the various taxing bodies; but rather to consider the matter from the standpoint of its underlying principles and give a general idea of the methods adopted. I have added an Appendix setting forth the principal features of the various Acts, which should be used for general reference only, since new rulings alter minor details from time to time. In current legislation, many important points are left to the discretion of the Ministers and their deputies. We are, indeed, fortunate in having in Canada an able and conscientious body of permanent officials, who bring a sense of justice and courtesy to their work which is most commendable, and which has done much to simplify the working out of general problems. The production of metals may rightly be deemed a form of manufacture, but differs from the average manufacturing business in three important respects: (1) In its early stages, it is wholly speculative, since it is impossible to make any definite appraisal of value or possibilities. (2) The principal asset of any mine, i.e., the ore in the ground, is a wasting asset, and is irreplaceable. (3) Any additional burden by way of taxation cannot be passed on to the public but must be borne entirely by the producer. Having regard to the first of these differences, it is apparent that, since the risk of loss is great, the reward in case of success must be correspondingly great. This fact seems to be constantly overlooked by those who regard the all too few outstanding successes in Canadian mining history as fit prey for predatory legislation. As an illustration of the speculative nature of early mining development, let us consider the Province of Ontario-and I take this illustration simply because I am more familiar with conditions there, and not because I believe it differs greatly from any other province. From 1907 to 1933, 165,243 claims were staked and recorded, from which 43 mines were developed which paid one or more dividends. There was, of course, some duplication through re-staking; also, on some claims very little work was done, and most mines have more than one claim. But, since staking and recording cost real money and effort, each of these claims must have been considered to have had merit.

Jan 1, 1935

By H. H. Pierce, J. B. Austin

In developing a consistent picture of the thermal expansion of the commercial chromium steels, which cover a range of carbon contents, it is desirable to know the expansion in the limiting case of the binary, carbon-free, iron-chromium alloys. We have, therefore, determined the thermal expansion of a series of five special alloys, ranging in chromium content from 3 to 10.5 per cent, with not more than 0.03 per cent carbon, over a temperature range extending beyond the transformation region; this low carbon content enables us to draw reasonably reliable conclusions as to the behavior of the carbon-free system. Moreover, the measurements serve to determine the beginning and the end of the alpha-gamma transformation; and they emphasize once more the fact that a transformation temperature determined by any method in which the specimen is cooled at an appreciable rate is apt to be seriously in error, particularly if the metal contains a transformation-retarding element such as chromium or managanese. The lag, or undercooling, observed at the ? — a transformation is explained in terms of the influence of temperature on transformation velocity; the rather unusual shape of the ? loop is attributed to a change with temperature and with composition of the distribution of chromium between the alpha-iron and gamma-iron solid solutions. The exact composition of the alloys, which were obtained through the courtesy of Dr. W. Rohn, of the Heraeus Vakuumschmelze A-G., is given in Table 1. Determinations of the linear thermal expansion and of transformation temperature were carried out in the vacuum dila-tometer previously described,' using a rate of heating and of cooling of 3.0" to 3.5" per minute unless otherwise stated. Magnetic susceptibility, which was measured in studying the rate of transformation, was determined with a magnetic balance, which also has been described.2 Results and Discussion Thermal Expansion Coeficients.—Numerical values for the linear expansion coefficient, derived from a smoothed curve based on at least

Jan 1, 1935

By Lombard Squires, W. K. Lewis, W. I. Thompson

Clays consist predominantly of hydrated silicates of alumina. The formula is frequently assumed to be A1203 . 2Si02 . 2H20,'and certain of I. North Carolina. Low plasticity. 11. Same as I, after washing. Low plasticity. III. Tennessee. Good plasticity. IV. Pennsylvania flint fireclay. Low plasticity. V. Laredo, Texas. Very plastic. CaO/Na2O corrected for GO2. VI. San Antonio, Texas. Fine grained, highly plastic. Moisture and CO2 were determined together at 18.8 per cent. VII. Selected crude bentonite, California. " Data from R. Ries: Clays. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1927. them undoubtedly have substantially this composition, but in general the ratio of silica to alumina is considerably higher. However, they always contain water of chemical constitution, as shown by Table 1.

Jan 1, 1935

By Paul R. Martin, R. B. Kelly

The area comprising what is geographically termed "Central Texas" was somewhat less active in 1934 than in 1933. The year saw the completion of 182 dry holes and only 74 producing wells. Bexar, Williamson and Bastrop counties, with active fields such as Yturri-Southton, Byersville, North Dale and Cedar Creek contributed a majority of the new oil wells. Hilbig, in Bastrop County, 1933's most important discovery in the district, saw no development during the current year. New fields opened in 1934 were Byersville, a serpentine intrusion in Williamson County, and Manda, producing from similar material in Travis County. Like most of the other serpentine plugs, neither gives promise of covering a very large area. Other active counties were Bexar, Bastrop and Caldwell, although successful operations in each of them were limited to the old fields. The location of producing fields is shown on Fig. 1. New Fields Byersvil1e.—Late in 1933, Fritz Fuchs completed Zeischang No. 1, eight miles south of Taylor, Williamson County, for an initial production of 25 bbl. per day. The oil is 37" B6. A.P.I. gravity and is from Serpentine formation at approximately 900 ft. Additional drilling was carried on in 1934, and at the end of the year 18 producing wells had been completed, proving about 200 acres. Manda.—The Manda field, or Kimbro field as it is termed by some, received its first production Sept. 10, 1934, when the Humble Oil & Refining Co. completed No. 1 C. J. Peterson as an 8-bbl. oil well. The new field is near Littig, in eastern Travis County, and is about 15 miles northeast of Austin. Production is found in serpentine formation between 650 and 750 ft. The same company's No. 1 Buck Christian, second well in the field, flowed 190 bbl. per day through a ?-in choke. Although only a small area has been definitely proven it is expected that present drilling will provide extensions in several directions.

Jan 1, 1935

By A. S. Baillie

THE subject of taxes appears to engage our attention altogether too lightly. At least it would seem that, notwithstanding the increase in the cost of government, and its concomitant increased taxation, little constructive work is being done with a view to solving the problem of increased taxes. I believe that the inattention of the public generally to the subject of increased taxation is due largely to the fact that shareholders are not advised of the amount of taxes paid by industry. Were companies to advise their shareholders the amount of monies paid or payable out of each year's earnings for taxes in one form or another, and were such amounts compared with the amounts available for distribution to shareholders, the effect would be a general demand for more equitable taxation methods. While I am not unmindful of the burdens and inequities in taxation confronting industry generally, I believe that the mining industry in this Province does not fully appreciate the burden represented by the costs of taxation. My reason for this belief is based partly upon1the fact that no serious effort has so far been made to devise some means By which the mining industry in British Columbia might protect itself against the ever-increasing burden of taxation. In addition to this fact the widely diverse nature of mining in British Columbia makes the accumulation of comparable data a problem which, so far as I can ascertain, has never been attempted in a manner which would be authoritative. It should not be necessary to cite the effects of this burden upon any one mining company or upon any branch of the mining industry, such as coal mining, placer mining, base-metal mining, or the precious-metal mines. In my opinion, the operation of our mines by large corporations is conducive to the payment of taxes with much less protest than would be the case were the taxes being taken out of the earnings of just a few partners or a very few shareholders. We appear to be too unmindful of the taxes, paid by mining companies, of a kind that are not so prominently brought to our attention as are the taxes which are calculated upon the taxable income of the company at the end of its fiscal year. British Columbian mining companies pay many other taxes besides those which are calculated upon taxable income. Among these are school taxes, property taxes, gasoline taxes, mineral taxes, coal royalty, to say nothing of fuel-oil tax, sales tax, and excise taxes.

Jan 1, 1935

By E. W. Schilling

THE separation of hematite by hysteretic repulsion was first brought to the attention of the public in 1922, by W. M. Mordey1. Three years later another paper2 was published and after another four years a third paper3 appeared in the South African publications. Certain data were lacking in these papers. In order to continue the work intelligently a knowledge of the shapes of the hysteresis curves for certain minerals was very necessary. This information was not available until the present year4. It was known that reduction of certain ores rendered them amenable to this process of separation but definite data in the form of curves showing exactly the effect of such treatment were lacking. Prob-ably our best source of information on the separation of minerals by the use of alternating-current magnetic fields today is the reports from the U. S. Bureau of Mines 5-7. It is not the purpose of this paper to tell the reader in detail how to make a commercial separator. Experimental models have recently been made 7 and the results obtained have been so good that it is the opinion of the authors that the public will soon take an active interest in the subject and its development. The writers have constructed a separator that is considerably different in construction and operation from the two types described by Mr. Davis. This will be described, but the real purpose of this paper is to outline certain experiments and give curves showing data that have a fundamental bearing upon the practical construction of a separator of this type.

Jan 1, 1935

By Charles Bohdanowicz

As in preceding years, the most intensive drilling activity during 1934 took place in the old fields of the western part of the Polish Carpathian petroleum province (district of Jaslo). The number of wells completed to the end of 1934, expressed in percentages, is as follows: Jaslo district, 57 per cent; oil fields outside Boryslaw-Tustanowice-Mraznica, 27; Stanislawow district 8 and Boryslaw fields only 7 per cent. The number of meters drilled (Table 2), expressed in percentages, for the same fields are as follows: Jaslo district, 51 per cent; oil fields outside Boryslaw-Tustanowice-Mraznica, 26; Stanislawow district, 12, and Boryslaw oil fields, 11 per cent. This comparison shows that most of the new

Jan 1, 1935

By A. B. Kinzel

Precise knowledge regarding the effect of heat treatment on the properties of steel has made possible the detailed specifications and instructions covering optimum heat-treating temperatures and practices that are in current use. A distinct contrast is presented by the metallurgical treatment of steel adjacent to a fusion weld, as such steel is subjected to each temperature from room temperature to fusion temperature, and cooled at a rate that is not generally controllable but is predetermined by the nature of the assembly to be welded, the kind of welding used, and the surrounding conditions. This is true regardless of the type of fusion welding: oxyacetylene, electric arc, thermit or flash resistance. Therefore it seemed desirable to investigate the effect of this metallurgical treatment on the characteristics of carbon steels commonly used for welding, by a detailed study of metal subjected to each temperature range; i.e., each heat-affected zone. Oxyacetylene welding was chosen for the investigation because of the experimental facility of accurately segregating and studying each temperature zone. The nature of the zones produced by other types of welding is the same. The difference is primarily a matter of dimensions of each of the temperature zones involved. The advantages and disadvantages of the extent of the zone are of prime moment, and are discussed after the presentation of the detailed zone study. No mention is made of the fused metal proper, as this has been the subject of much published research and the nature of the solidified metal is fairly .ell known. General Method The scheme of procedure in the work herein reported involved the testing of the metal of each temperature zone adjacent to the weld in so

Jan 1, 1935

By A. B. Hooker

[Permissible electric cap lamps represent a workable balance between the amount of light needed and the various limiting conditions, such as the weight the miner can carry conveniently, cost of the lamp, including upkeep, and adequacy or practicability of the lamp as regards safety, mechanical strength, and general performance. Other things being equal, the coot desirable lamp is one that gives the greatest amount of useful light. Conversely, with a given amount of light the most desirable lamp is one that its the most efficient respecting weight, cost, and performance.]

Jan 1, 1935