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By E. Miller, J. M. Eldridge, K. L. Komarek

Activities of magnesium in liquid Mg-Sn alloys have been determined between 5 and 90 at. pct Sn and 990" and 1290°K by an improved isopiestic method wherein tin specimens, heated in a temperature gradient and contained in crucibles of special geometry, were equilibrated with magnesium vapor in a closed titanium system. The crucibles were designed so that the equilibrium compositions of the specimens were satisfactorily preserved on termination of the experimental runs by quenching. The activity values are in excellent agreement with those predicated on the phase diagram and allowed a delineation of the solidus curve of the compound Mg2Sn near its melting point. EQUATIONS have been recently derived relating the chemical potentials of the components to the liquidus and enthalpy data for binary systems exhibiting one congruently melting compound.' The liquidus curve of the Mg-Sn system between the eutectics was carefully redetermined and the thermodynamic properties thus calculated were in reasonably good agreement with values derived from electromotive-force measurements of an,' but differed greatly from the iso-piestically determined values of Ashtakala and Pid-geon.3 The present study was initiated: a) to resolve the discrepancies; b) to develop a method for measuring activities in systems having volatile (and possibly highly reactive) components; and c) to use the method in a general investigation of the thermodynamic properties of the homologous series of Mg-Group IVb systems, i.e., Mg-Pb, Mg-Sn, Mg-Ge, and Mg-Si. This paper describes the results for the Mg-Sn system. An isopiestic technique, originally developed by Herasymenko 4 and adapted for alloys having a component of high reactivity and low volatility,5-8 was modified in this study by using crucibles designed to preserve the equilibrium composition of highly volatile liquid specimens on quenching from high temperatures. Tin specimens, contained in tightly covered graphite crucibles and heated in a temperature gradient, were equilibrated with magnesium vapor of fixed pressure from a magnesium reservoir kept at constant temperature in a previously evacuated and sealed titanium tube. During equilibration magne-

Jan 1, 1967

By J. J. Tietien, R. O. Clough

A technique previously used to prepare alloys of InAs1-xPx and GaAsl-x Px, miry: the gaseous hydrides arsine and phosphine, has been extended to grow single -crystalline GaAs 1-x Sb x by replacing the phos-phine with stibine. Procedures were developed for handling and storing stibine which now make this chemical useful for vapor phase growth. This represents the first time that this series of alloys has been grown from the vapor phase. Layers of P -type GaSb and GaSb-rich alloys have been grown with the carrier concentrations comparable to the lowest ever reported. In addition, a p-type alloy containing 4 pct GaSb exhibited a mobility of 400 sq cm per v-sec which is equivalent to the highest reported for GaAs. RECENTLY, interest has been shown in the preparation and properties of GaAs1-xSbx alloys, since it was predicted1 that for compositions in the range of 0.1 < x < 0.5, they might provide improved Gunn devices. However, preparation of these alloys presents fundamental difficulties. In the case of liquid phase growth, the large concentration difference between the liquidus and solidus in the phase diagram, at any given temperature, introduces constitutional supercooling problems. It is likely that, for this reason, virtually no description of the preparation of GaAs1-xSbx by this technique has been reported. In the case of vapor phase growth, problems are presented by the low vapor pressure of antimony, and the low melting point of GaSb and many of these alloys. In previous attempts1 at the vapor phase growth of these materials, using antimony pentachloride as the source of antimony vapor, alloy compositions were limited to those containing less than about 2 pct GaSb. This was in part due to the difficulty of avoiding condensation of antimony on introducing it to the growth zone. A growth technique has recently been described2 for the preparation of III-V compounds in which the hydrides of arsenic and phosphorous (AsH3 and pH3) are used as the source of the group V element. With this method, GaAs1-xPx and InAs1-xPx have been prepared2&apos;3 across both alloy series with very good electrical properties. Since the use of stibine (SbH3) affords the potential for effective introduction of antimony to the growth apparatus, in analogy with the other group V hydrides, this growth method has been explored for the preparation of GaAs1-xSbx alloys. In addition to GaSb, these alloys have now been prepared with values of x as high as 0.8. In the case of GaSb, undoped p-type layers were grown with carrier concentrations equivalent to the lowest reported in the literature. Thus it has been demonstrated that, with this growth technique, all of the alloys in this series can be prepared. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A) Growth Technique. The growth apparatus, shown schematically in Fig. 1, and procedure are virtually identical to that described2 for the growth of GaAs1-xPx alloys, with the exception that phosphine is replaced by stibine.* HCl is introduced over the gallium boat to *Purchased from Matheson Co., E. Rutherford,N+J. transport the gallium predominantly via its subchlo-ride to the reaction zone, where it reacts with arsenic and antimony on the substrate surface to form an alloy layer. The fundamental limiting factors to the growth of GaAs1-xSbx alloys from the vapor phase, especially GaSb-rich alloys, are the low melting point of GaSb (712°C) and the low vapor pressure of antimony at this temperature (<l mm). Thus, relatively low antimony pressures must be employed, which, however, imply low growth rates. To provide low antimony pressures, very dilute concentrations of arsine and stibine in a hydrogen carrier gas were used. Typical flow rates (referred to stp) were about 4 cm3 per min of HC1 (0.06 mole pct)+ from 0.1 to 1 cm3 per min of ASH, (0.002 to 0.02 mole pct), and from 1 to 10 cn13 per min of SbH3 (0.02 to 0.2 mole pct), with a total hydrogen carrier gas flow rate of about 6000 cm3 per min. Although no precise data on decomposition. kinetics exist, it is known4 that stibine decomposes extremely rapidly at elevated temperatures. However, the high linear velocities attendent with the high total flow rate (about 2000 cm per sec) delays cracking of the stibine until it reaches the reaction zone and prevents condensation of antimony in the system. To improve the growth rates of the GaSb-rich alloys, growth temperatures just below the alloy solidus are main-

Jan 1, 1970

By J. A. Barr, R. B. Burt, I. S. Tillotson

THE pumping of solids in water suspension is an important part of many metallurgical and mining operations. In most cases, it is still in the rule of thumb category for which no universal formula has been developed, and much research is needed. Because of the limited and incomplete data available, this article may be classed as an experience paper, which is presented with the hope that some contribution will be made toward the development of the so-called universal formula. This formula, if and when developed, may be evolved from several factors, many of which are not now available for general application. The designing engineer is interested in obtaining accurate forecasts on: 1—the minimum velocities needed to prevent choke-ups in the pipeline, which in turn dictates pipe sizes, 2—power required for pumping, 3—pump selection. The basic factors for a given problem will include: 1—weight per unit of time of solids to be handled, 2—specific gravity of solids, for calculation of volume, friction and power, 3—screen analysis of solids with the colloidal acting, i.e., the slime fraction, a very important factor, 4— shape of particle or some means of determining a friction constant, 5—effects of percentage of solids, 6—development of a viscosity factor to be used in the overall calculations, 7—calculation of the lower limits of pipeline velocities permissible, 8—calculation of total head, pump horsepower, and 9—setting up of pump specifications. In certain limited cases horsepower and total heads and minimum velocities may be computed and a suitable pump selected from basic data, but in many cases, as in mining of Florida pebble phosphate, experience rather than a hydraulic formula still should be used as a basis of selection. Pumping Florida Pebble Matrix Pumping at the Noralyn mine of International Minerals and Chemical Corp. will be used as an example. Other areas will vary as to the characteristics of the matrix, especially the slime content. A typical screen analysis of this matrix is: +14 mesh, pebble size,* 2.1 pct; —14 +35 mesh, 11.4 pct; -35 +I50 mesh, 60.5 pct; -150 mesh, 25.0; total, 100 pct; moisture in bank, 20.0 pct; weight per cu ft in bank, 120 lb. The —150 mesh fraction may increase to as much as 35 pct in adjacent areas. When thoroughly elutriated, the matrix has a relatively slow settling rate, which is an important factor in permitting lower pipeline velocities without choke-ups. Exact data is not available to evaluate settling rates. For a factor of 100 a suspension of clean building sand in water is suggested. When pumping long * Pebble is a commercial designation for the coarser fraction of finished phosphate from a washer, usually +14 mesh. distances, a quick settling matrix allows the coarser solids to settle out along the bottom of the pipeline, causing drag, turbulence, and increased friction. With a slow settling matrix as at Noralyn, turbulence acts to keep the solids in suspension at a lower friction head, regardless of the pumping distance. When the pebble content of the matrix, i.e., the + 14 mesh fraction, is in excess of 10 pct of the total solids, trouble may be expected from settling out even in normal pumping distances. To prevent choke-ups and maintain tonnage, an additional pump must be added in the long runs, where one pump would otherwise be satisfactory. A typical pulp handled is: total volume, 7800 gpm; water, 4500; solids pumped per hr, 4200 lb; sp gr pulp, 1.4; percent solids in pulp, 46.; pipe size, 16-in. ID; pulp velocity, 12.85 fps; probable critical velocity, 10 fps, as below this minimum velocity choke-ups would be numerous. In calculating friction heads the Armco handbook is used where a roughness factor based on 15-year-old pipe is set up. Because the pipe used in pumping matrix is smooth and polished because of the scouring action of the phosphate and its silica content, the head losses in the Armco table for water are practically the same as in pumping the Noralyn matrix through smooth pipe, plus the fact that conditions vary widely over short periods, making accurate determinations difficult to obtain. New pumps and pump changes are being tested continuously and a wealth of data built up. This has resulted in a substantial improvement and lower relative costs in pumping matrix. The Florida phosphate industry is constantly seeking to offset higher wage and material costs with improved technique. Until a few years ago a 12-in. discharge pump was commonly used, with heads as low as 80 ft. Sizes have gradually increased and heads more than doubled. For example, the following pump was placed under test at the Noralyn mine: make, Georgia Iron Works; size, suction 16 in., discharge 14 in.; impeller, 39-in. diam; motor, 600 hp, slip ring; full load speed, 514 rpm. The results were increased head, higher capacity than the older design, with fewer pumps in the line from mine to washer.

Jan 1, 1953

By R. B. Burt, J. A. Barr, I. S. Tillotson

THE pumping of solids in water suspension is an important part of many metallurgical and mining operations. In most cases, it is still in the rule of thumb category for which no universal formula has been developed, and much research is needed. Because of the limited and incomplete data available, this article may be classed as an experience paper, which is presented with the hope that some contribution will be made toward the development of the so-called universal formula. This formula, if and when developed, may be evolved from several factors, many of which are not now available for general application. The designing engineer is interested in obtaining accurate forecasts on: 1—the minimum velocities needed to prevent choke-ups in the pipeline, which in turn dictates pipe sizes, 2—power required for pumping, 3—pump selection. The basic factors for a given problem will include: 1—weight per unit of time of solids to be handled, 2—specific gravity of solids, for calculation of volume, friction and power, 3—screen analysis of solids with the colloidal acting, i.e., the slime fraction, a very important factor, 4— shape of particle or some means of determining a friction constant, 5—effects of percentage of solids, 6—development of a viscosity factor to be used in the overall calculations, 7—calculation of the lower limits of pipeline velocities permissible, 8—calculation of total head, pump horsepower, and 9—setting up of pump specifications. In certain limited cases horsepower and total heads and minimum velocities may be computed and a suitable pump selected from basic data, but in many cases, as in mining of Florida pebble phosphate, experience rather than a hydraulic formula still should be used as a basis of selection. Pumping Florida Pebble Matrix Pumping at the Noralyn mine of International Minerals and Chemical Corp. will be used as an example. Other areas will vary as to the characteristics of the matrix, especially the slime content. A typical screen analysis of this matrix is: +14 mesh, pebble size,* 2.1 pct; —14 +35 mesh, 11.4 pct; -35 +I50 mesh, 60.5 pct; -150 mesh, 25.0; total, 100 pct; moisture in bank, 20.0 pct; weight per cu ft in bank, 120 lb. The —150 mesh fraction may increase to as much as 35 pct in adjacent areas. When thoroughly elutriated, the matrix has a relatively slow settling rate, which is an important factor in permitting lower pipeline velocities without choke-ups. Exact data is not available to evaluate settling rates. For a factor of 100 a suspension of clean building sand in water is suggested. When pumping long * Pebble is a commercial designation for the coarser fraction of finished phosphate from a washer, usually +14 mesh. distances, a quick settling matrix allows the coarser solids to settle out along the bottom of the pipeline, causing drag, turbulence, and increased friction. With a slow settling matrix as at Noralyn, turbulence acts to keep the solids in suspension at a lower friction head, regardless of the pumping distance. When the pebble content of the matrix, i.e., the + 14 mesh fraction, is in excess of 10 pct of the total solids, trouble may be expected from settling out even in normal pumping distances. To prevent choke-ups and maintain tonnage, an additional pump must be added in the long runs, where one pump would otherwise be satisfactory. A typical pulp handled is: total volume, 7800 gpm; water, 4500; solids pumped per hr, 4200 lb; sp gr pulp, 1.4; percent solids in pulp, 46.; pipe size, 16-in. ID; pulp velocity, 12.85 fps; probable critical velocity, 10 fps, as below this minimum velocity choke-ups would be numerous. In calculating friction heads the Armco handbook is used where a roughness factor based on 15-year-old pipe is set up. Because the pipe used in pumping matrix is smooth and polished because of the scouring action of the phosphate and its silica content, the head losses in the Armco table for water are practically the same as in pumping the Noralyn matrix through smooth pipe, plus the fact that conditions vary widely over short periods, making accurate determinations difficult to obtain. New pumps and pump changes are being tested continuously and a wealth of data built up. This has resulted in a substantial improvement and lower relative costs in pumping matrix. The Florida phosphate industry is constantly seeking to offset higher wage and material costs with improved technique. Until a few years ago a 12-in. discharge pump was commonly used, with heads as low as 80 ft. Sizes have gradually increased and heads more than doubled. For example, the following pump was placed under test at the Noralyn mine: make, Georgia Iron Works; size, suction 16 in., discharge 14 in.; impeller, 39-in. diam; motor, 600 hp, slip ring; full load speed, 514 rpm. The results were increased head, higher capacity than the older design, with fewer pumps in the line from mine to washer.

Jan 1, 1953

By J. G. Patchett, R. W. Rausch

Fresh waters and the presence of clay in many Rocky Mountain and West Coast sands require special methods of log analysis. Archie&apos;s saturation equation requires addition of a shale correction term, and the SP equation must also be modified to account for clays. Suitable equations were developed several years ago, but have not been widely used due to the algebraic complexity. A computer-oriented method has now been developed to overcome this problem. The basic shaly sand equations are rearranged in four different ways to permit solution for various sets of available input data. Essential to application of the method is the correction of observed SP values to those that would be observed if the resistivity of the formation waters were exactly interchangeable with the activity. A graphic method for doing this is given. Where conditions require consideration of the effect of clay in the sands, the method presented has been found to improve the accuracy of water-saturation determinations. INTRODUCTION Log interpretation in many Rocky Mountain and West Coast basins is complicated by rapid vertical and lateral changes in water resistivity. Calculation of formation water resistivity from the SP curve becomes difficult in zones that contain clay, since changes in SP deflection may be due to changes in either clay content or water salinity. In hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs, the problem is further complicated because hydrocarbon saturation also reduces the SP.1 A log interpretation system using computers has been developed to provide a solution to this problem, based on equations proposed by de Witte.2 Four different simultaneous solutions of de Witte&apos;s equations have been made. Each solution method uses a different set of input data as independent variables. Thus, a choice of solution method is possible, depending upon the logs run and the availability of other data. Two of the solutions do not require a knowledge of water resistivity. This system is intended to be used primarily in multiple sandstone-shale sequences of low and moderate resistivities where the principal contaminant in the sandstones is clay. However, where sufficient regional data are available, interpretation in single-zone sandstone reservoirs can also be improved by using the method. THEORY AND HISTORY OF SHALY SAND ANALYSIS The log interpretation formula originally proposed by Archie3 in 1941 is applicable only to rock-fluid systems wherein the rock has negligible electrical conductivity. In 1949, Patnode and Wyllie4 showed that if the rock itself can be considered conductive due to the presence of clay, a different calculation approach is necessary. During the following years, this problem was investigated at great length, as was the related problem of the effect of rock conductivity on the SP.5-11 These investigations established functional relationships between SP, resistivity, water saturation and water resistivity for such a formation. Refs. 2 and 12 provide summaries of these studies. Unfortunately, practical use of these relationships required that water resistivity be known independently from the SP. Although log interpretation methods for rock systems containing clay were proposed at that time,&apos; they were not generally accepted for routine use. There are three principal reasons for this. First, in many field situations involving high-salinity water, rock conductivity may be neglected (even if present) without introducing appreciable error. This may be seen by considering the following expression for waier-saturated rock.&apos; 1/R2=1/R1+1/FRn....(1) where 1/R, is conductivity due to clay. As Rw becomes small, I/FRw becomes much greater than 1/R, which may be neglected. Where 1/R, may be neglected, the sandstone is called clean. If the term may not be neglected, the sandstone is termed dirty or shaly. For resistivity purposes, the classification between clean and shaly sands then depends not only upon the conductivity due to shale in the sand, but also upon the resistivity of the associated water (shale is used here to mean surface condition due to disseminated clay). A sand of given conductivity might safely be treated as clean in association with high-salinity water, but would require shaly sand methods if associated with fresher waters. Shaly sand methods are not required in many areas having saline waters; but in Rocky Mountain and West Coast sands having relatively fresh waters (often more than 0.3 ohm-m resistivity at formation conditions), the shaly sand methods are needed. Errors Rw calculations from the SP due to the presence of shale are likewise related to water salinity. In saline water formations drilled with fresh mud, the ratio of mud filtrate resistivity to water resistivity is high, the SP is large and the presence of shale can introduce large errors in water resistivity calculated by the conventional method. When the resistivity ratio is low, the errors are smaller. At zero SP, no error would result from shale. Thus, from the SP viewpoint, a given rock could be shaly if associated with a saline water, and clean in association with a fresh water, which is the opposite of the resistivity-oriented definition above.

By P. E. Baker

An improved method of logging formation density has been developed in which the formation is bombarded with a collimuted beam of gamma rays. By means of a scintillation detector and pulse height discriminator, the gamma-ray energy band is accepted and recorded which corresponds to deepest penetration into the formation. Laboratory tests on a field tool revealed no borehole diameter effect for smooth holes and no effect of formation chemistry, except insofar as chemistry affects density. In extensive field tests, the density log has exhibited satisfactory agree-ment with core measurements and has correlated accurately with other logs. INTRODUCTION This paper describes an improved method of logging formation density by means of back-scattered gamma rays to penetrate the formation together with energy discrimination to select only that energy (or frequency) range corresponding to deepest penetration into the forma- tion. This method of density logging was developed at the La Habra laboratory of California Research Corp.* Field instruments have been built and tested by McCullough Tool Co. and commercial service has begun in some areas. All of the data discussed here were obtained for the original field tool. The density log can be a valuable adjunct to existing logs because of its use in determining porosity quantitatively. It is useful also in connection with seismic and gravity surveys where formation density information is of interest. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES The intensity, I, of a beam of gamma rays after traversing a distance, x, in an absorbing medium is given by I = loe -ax where I, is the intensity of the beam entering the medium and a the attenuation constant or macroscopic cross section of the medium for gamma-ray absorption. The macroscopic cross section depends on the number and types of atoms per unit volume and the gamma-ray energy. In brief, it is the sum of the atomic cross sections of all atoms per cubic centimeter. The density of the material is the sum of the masses of all atoms per cubic centimeter. Thus, the density and the macroscopic cross section for gam-ma-ray absorption vary in propor- tion to the number of atoms per cubic centimeter. The density of the material increases, of course, if the atomic masses increase without a change in the number of atoms per cubic centimeter. When the density increases in this latter way, the macroscopic cross section increases also, but disproportionately. This results from the fact that part of the gamma-ray absorption arises from the photoelectric effect and the pair-production effect**, which are proportional to the sixth and to the second power, respectively, of the atomic number of the absorber. The remainder of the absorption results from the Compton effect, and is directly proportional to the atomic number. The gamma rays that undergo Compton scattering are not immediately absorbed. Since these rays are scattered in all directions, a fraction will emerge from the face of the medium at which they entered. If a gamma-ray shield is placed between the source and detector, most gamma rays reaching the detector will be those scattered out of the medium. The intensity will depend on absorption and scattering in the medium, and so indicates the density of the medium. For gamma rays for which Compton scattering prevails, the intensity

Jan 1, 1958

By James E. York

AT a meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials at Atlantic City, June, 1908, Dr.. C. B. Dudley, in his presidential address,&apos; showed the vital necessity of not only making a steel rail as good as in the past, but of making it considerably better in order to meet the present and prospective require¬ments of railroads. Doctor Dudley requested the co-operation of all who from personal experience could give information that would result in bringing about the production of a steel rail that could be relied upon to meet the present requirements. I have had considerable experience in the practical manufacture of steel of almost every grade, during the past 40 years, and I shall suggest changes that will bring about the results desired. Doctor Dudley has had a long experience as chemical and metallurgical expert for the Pennsylvania railroad, but he frankly admits that up to the present time both he and other metallurgical experts lack the practical knowledge of steel-making that is necessary to state correctly the reasons for the unreliability of the steel rails now produced. The necessity is self-evident for more positive practical knowledge on the part of these experts of what is possible and what is impossible regarding the practical manufacturing of steel rails from the ingot to the, finished product. Chemical knowledge in steel-making is far in advance of what it was years ago, and might be said to cover every requirement (in that department) for producing reliable steel. The study of the metallography of steel has been of great value, also the physical testing of steel, but this knowledge will only de-

May 1, 1909

By E. H. Crabtree

IN an ideal mill, with perfect milling operations, the mineral extraction would be 100 per cent, the, concentrate would be 100 per cent mineral, the tailing would assay zer.0 mineral and the milling cost would be zero dollars. Such an operation can, of course, never be attained. We can only strive to approach it as nearly as possible and in doing so most recognize .the fact that the three primary factors in milling: assay of concentrate, assay of tailing, and cost of operation bear a definite economic relationship to each other. This relation will change from time to time and will be different for different mills, depending on milling equipment, character and quality of feed, market conditions, and other factors. It is granted that for a given operation there is an economic point, but the location of this point is difficult. It is for the purpose of making some of these economic points a little more tangible that this paper has been prepared.

Jan 1, 1930

By David Baker

A Discussion of the Paper of David Baker, read at the Lake Superior Meeting, September, 1904. (Washington Meeting, May, 1905.) MR. JOHN J. PORTER, Chicago Ill. (communication to the Secretary*) :-Mr. Baker&apos;s account of his experiences with stock-distribution has been particularly interesting to me, as it confirms the opinions which I had formed concerning the rapid failure of linings in several furnaces that have recently come to my notice. These furnaces, four -in number, are of modern construction, having been built or remodeled within the past two years, and are equipped with a well-known type of skip-hoist and double-bell charging-apparatus. In every case, a hot spot has developed within a few months after blowing-in, which has already compelled relining in two cases, and the probabilities are strongly against a long campaign in the other two. Since the hot spot in each case appeared in a position approximately opposite to the skip-hoist, and since the sizing, mentioned by Mr. Baker, is very apparent, it would seem as though there could be no doubt concerning the cause of the trouble. Nevertheless, there are some who cannot see it in that light; for the managers of two of these plants, at least, do not admit the existence of bad distribution, and have satisfied themselves by putting in cooling-plates, thickening the lining of the in-wall, and changing the brand of the fire-brick used for the construction of the walls. From observations of the clumping-action of the skip-hoist, and from subsequent inspection of the stock-distribution in the furnace itself, I arrived at the conclusion, some time ago, that no system of filling could be perfectly satisfactory where the stock is dumped into the hopper from one side, also that some

Mar 1, 1905

By J. Koskinen, P. Vanninen, T. Leskinen, A. Leppala

Continuous and accurate analysis of slurries has become a critical requirement in mineral processing. With on-stream assay data, automation procedures can be employed to obtain higher recovery and improved control of production. The Courier system was developed by Outokumpu Oy, taking advantage of mineral processing know-how, to provide means for achieving these objectives in the company&apos;s ore concentrator operations. It became evident, based on early experience with on-stream analysis, that the Courier should be a complete system to fulfill all functions of the analysis operation. The system includes equipment and techniques for primary sampling, sample preparation for assaying, and processing of data for final assay results. In addition, the on-line X-ray spectrometer unit was developed specifically for industrial use, incorporating a number of technical advances. A new system for converting spectrometric data to assays is based on a physical model programmed on a digital computer. The Courier system is furnished on a turn-key installation basis incorporating all elements needed for operation including calibration. The experience to date with the Courier system at the Pyhäsalmi concentrator is summarized. Reference is also made to recent results with installations at the Outokumpu and Vihanti concentrators.

Jan 1, 1972

By J. N. Anderson

Developments in reverberatory furnace practice at Noranda over the period 1928 to 1953 are described. Features of interest are increasing furnace tonnage from 700 to 2000 tons per furnace day, the use of the suspended basic roof, and improvements in furnace fuel ratio. Points of comparison and contrast between Canadian and American furnace practice are given. OPERATIONS at the Noranda smelter have been described in a series of papers published between 1930 and 1945.1-4 In the present paper the development of reverberatory furnace practice over the 25 year period from the beginning of operations up to the present time will be reviewed and current furnace practice will be described in some detail. Particular attention will be given to those features which are characteristic of Canadian practice: first, the use of the suspended basic roof; second, the deliberate driving of furnaces to give tonnages in the range of 1400 to 2000 tons of solid charge per furnace day; and third, the continuous operation of furnaces at high tonnage for many years without any extended shutdown for repairs or rebuilding. Finally, points of comparison and contrast between reverberatory furnace practice in Canada and the United States will be discussed. The Noranda smelter, which started in December 1927, was built for the reduction of ore from the Horne mine where early development had shown a comparatively small tonnage of rich cop-per-gold ore of a grade and character which would require direct smelting. The smelter was designed for a capacity of 1000 tons of ore a day and originally consisted of eight roasters, two reverberatory furnaces, and two converters, together with necessary auxiliaries. The discovery of a large new body of ore in 1928 made it necessary to increase both the size and the scope of the reduction plant. A mill which was ultimately brought to a capacity of 3000 tons a day was built for concentrating low grade ore and in addition the capacity of the smelting plant had to be greatly expanded, so that for the next fifteen years every effort in the smelter was directed toward achieving maximum tonnage. Because the layout and design of the smelter made it impracticable to add a third furnace, it was necessary to increase the tonnage on the two original furnaces by improvements in furnace design and operation, roasting and converting equipment being added as required to meet the demands of increased furnace capacity. The smelter tonnage, which reached a peak in 1941, was curtailed in 1944 when it became necessary to operate on a one-furnace basis because of a reduction in the output of the Horne mine due to a shortage of labor. Two-furnace operation at a moderate tonnage was resumed in 1949. In the early years the smelter tonnage was made up almost entirely of Noranda ores and concentrates. However, since 1937 an increasing tonnage of ores and concentrates from other mines has been treated in the smelter. In recent years, with decreased production from the Horne mine, copper concentrates from several mines in the district, treated on a custom basis, have formed an important part of the smelter tonnage. A review of developments in reverberatory furnace practice at Noranda falls naturally into the following four periods: 1—1928 to 1935, the early years; 2—1935 to 1944, the period of greatest change and development; 3—1944 to 1949, one-furnace op-

Jan 1, 1955

By Frederick M. Becket

AFTER all the chronology that has been given, what is the present status of chromium steels? For the purpose of this discussion the different types of chromium steels can be divided into three classifications-those containing relatively low , percentages of chromium, say 5 per cent or less; the medium-chromium steels containing up to about 18 or 19 per cent chromium; and the steels containing still higher percentages of chromium, and some of the special alloys. Chromium has some unique effects in steel, so it is well to make a few generalizations. The affinity of chromium for carbon is great and the metal is unique in the manger in which it supplements and enhances the effects of carbon. Chromium retards -considerably the thermal transformations on cooling and exerts an opposing influence both on the absorption and precipitation of the carbides in steel. These statements make it easy to understand the fact that chromium .steels are capable of producing a hardened product at a much slower rate of cooling than is, true of plain carbon steel, and that chromium carbide or -the mixed carbides of iron and chromium do not contribute to brittleness to as great a degree as does iron carbide.

Jan 1, 1929

By B. D. Thomas

When the origin and early plans, of Battelle Memorial Institute were described in this journal in October 1929 by R. W. Gillett the first director, the doors of the laboratory had just been opened and the hope of the founder that the institution serve the world by research for industry still existed only as an ideal in the minds of the thirty or so employees who then constituted the staff. Since that time the country has experienced troublous times. A devastating depression plunged the entire world into an unprecedented period of financial and industrial inactivity; and the slow recovery of the late thirties was soon to be overtaken and overwhelmed in the violence of war. Through this time of stress Battelle has continued to grow. The staff has increased to almost 600; buildings and equipment have been added, until now it stands in a place of pre-eminence in the metallurgical and engineering world.

Jan 1, 1944

By John Johnston

THIS necessarily brief sketch will attempt to summarize the high lights of perhaps the best meeting so far held by the Iron and Steel Division. All sessions were well attended and the discussion was vigorous and of a high order. The technical sessions opened. on Tuesday morning. "Precipitation Hardening of Copper Steels" was discussed by Cyril S. Smith and Earl W. Palmer, and dealt with steel with a 1 per cent copper content. Discussion brought out that there were no fabricating difficulties, but that the surface might be somewhat checked due to intergranular penetration of copper which could be easily taken care of. Probable advantages of steels of this type for high temperatures were pointed out. "An Improved Nickel-chromium Hardened Chilled Cast Iron," by J. S. Vanick, described a wear-resistant cast iron and evoked a lively discussion.

Jan 1, 1933

By R. Simon

The sources of energy dissipation for concentrated loadings on rock are considered in an attempt to account for the experimentally measured magnitude of the work required to break out a unit volume of rock from the free surface of an essentially semi-infinite medium. It is concluded that most of this work probably represents the elastic strain energy developed by the loading in a much larger volume of rock beneath the loaded region than the volume of the rock fragment broken out to the side of the loaded region. This strain energy is largely dissipated in the form of stress waves generated by the high rate of unloading produced by the propagating cracks. The energies associated with the formation of the new surfaces of the cracks and with the stress waves generated directly by the loading process are computed to be negligibly small. Possibilities for improving the utilization of energy to drill rod. subject to the geometrical limitations imposed by down-hole operation, are discussed. It is pointed out that any such possible improvements would probably have to be differential ones, since each rock configuration of more favorabIe loading geometry that can be created down the hole is accompanied by a complementary configuration of less favorable loading geometry. INTRODUCTION Dislodging each cubic inch of rock from the bottom of the hole by the action of a bit requires the expenditure of an amount of energy that varies from approximately 5,000 in.-lb to approximately 100,000 in.-lb, depending on the hardness of the rock, or, more technically, upon its fragmentation strength.1 In this paper we will discuss (I) why the energy expended in drilling is so large, (2) what happens to this energy upon completion of the drilling process, and (3) what are the possibilities for reducing the magnitude of the energy required to drill rock. DETERMINATION OF ROCK DRILLING ENERGY The volume of rock removed per unit time from the bottom of a hole of diameter D is evidently (7/4)D2R, where R is the rate of penetration of the bit. If P is the rate at which work is done by the bit on the rock at the bottom of the hole, the energy required to break out a unit volume of rock is given by: Ev =(4/p) P/D2R............(i) For rotary drilling, of either the rolling-cone or drag-bit varicty, P = 2pLN, where L is the torque resistance to rotation at the bottom of the hole and N is the rate of rotation of the bit. L is essentially the same as the torque measured at the rotary table only when drilling in shallow holes. The energies expended in rotating the drill string against the frictional resistance of the walls of the hole and and against the viscous drag of the drilling fluid are extraneous to the subject under consideration, although these may be much greater in magnitude than E, when drilling in a deep hole. For percussion drilling, P = fE where f is the percussion frequency and E is the work done on the rock per impact. The latter quantity can be both computed and measured for a percussion drilling machine. 2 (Under satisfactory drilling conditions, defined in terms of ranges of numerical values of certain dimensionless parameters, E is only 30 to 50 per cent less than the impact energy of the striker.2) Alternatively, E, may be measured directly by dropping chisels shaped like bit edges, backed by rigid weights, onto the surfaces of laboratory rock samples of effectively semi-infinite extent. Under these circumstances, essentially all of the impact energy is converted to work done on the rock, and the relationships among volume of rock broken out, chisel shape, impact energy and indexing distances can be obtained.3 The values of the energy required to break out a unit volume of rock under favorable circumstances are substantially in agreement for rotary drilling, percussion drilling and drop testing at atmospheric pressure. The energy per unit volume is a quantity of the order of magnitude of roughly twice the com-pressive strength of the rock as measured by a uniaxial loading test. The phrase "order of magnitude" in this paper means from about 1/3 as much to 3 times as much; i.e., the energy per unit volume may range from roughly the same up to several times

By Robert :H. . Lesemann

I recently gave a talk at a seminar on mine development in the Eighties. I had to present CRU&apos; s long-range market outlook for copper, lead, zinc, nickel, molybdenum and silver. In reviewing the recent history of each metal, and our projections, I tried to find some common pattern of behavior that could prove a guide in projecting future market behavior. When you sweep aside your input-output models and econometric equations, what you seem to be left with is this: "When a market goes through a prolonged period of price weakness, you can usually look forward to a period of considerable improvement. " "When a market goes through a prolonged period of price strength, you can always anticipate a prolonged period of price weakness." Stated another way, "The better things are, the worse they will get."

Jan 1, 1982

By D. M. McFarland

A FEW years ago a novel electric detonator known as the split-second or millisecond delay electric blasting cap was introduced for use in quarry blasting. Regular electric blasting caps fired in series may be depended upon to fire within a millisecond or so from the first to the last in a series. Regular delay electric blasting caps are provided that fire one period after the other period in intervals of 1/2 to possibly 1 1/2 sec. Most split-second or millisecond delays are designed to fire one period after the other period in possibly 25 to 50 millisecond intervals. The ear is not capable of detecting time intervals of this magnitude. The primary thought at the time millisecond de- lays were introduced was to investigate the results on rock breakage by firing a line of holes in a quarry face.so that charges in adjacent holes would not be detonated simultaneously. This could not be accomplished satisfactorily with regular delays. The time interval between successive periods of $5 to 1 sec was sufficient to permit considerable movement of the burden. If the burden of one hole was reduced to a great extent by the firing of an adjacent hole, the firing of the hole with the reduced burden would likely reveal this lack of confinement by a terrific report and wild throw of rock.

Jan 1, 1950

By R. D. Pehlke, J. V. Gluck

A study was made of&apos; the effects of up to five additional solutes on the thermodynamic activity of zinc in dilute solution with molten bismuth in the range 450" to 650°C. The experimental measurements were made in a multielectrode galvanic cell apparatus employing fused LiCl-KCl as the electrolyte. The solute additions included indium, lead, tin, cadmium, copper, silver, antimony, or gold. A range of positice and negative interactiotls with zinc was covered. The experinzer~tal observations were cowlpared with the activity coefficients calculated usitlg either Wagner&apos;s first-order Taylor series rnodel or a proposed second-order solution itrteraction model. hi general, the truncated first-order Taylor series proposed by Wagner gaue good results for "dilute" solutions (XBi > 0.90) contaitzing up to six solutes. The second-order model, which includes a second-order cross-interaction term, produced a slight improvement in predictions for solutions with XZn = 0.015 and a significant improvement for solutions with XZn = 0.050 hear the limit of Henry&apos;s law region). Seveval of the quaternary solutions studied contained a total solute content of 0.215 mole fraction, and fairly good success was achieved in predicting the activity coefficient 01- zinc. ThE study of thermodynamic interactions between dilute solutes in liquid metallic solutions has occasioned much recent interest. It is useful to recall in this respect that Wagner&apos;s well-known expression for the activity coefficient&apos; is a practical application of the problem of representing a given function, i .e., In ?, by means of a sequence of polynomials. No specific physical model of a solution is involved in its use. As suggested by Wagner, a Taylor Series is used to expand In ? about a point of infinite dilution with respect to all solutes. The partial differential coefficients of the series have been termed "interaction parameters". Various authors&apos;-6 have proposed formalisms for parameters, the definitions being designed to meet some specific experimental or physical condition. A usual assumption is that terms above first-order in the Taylor Series may be neglected. In that case, the logarithm of the activity coefficient is expressed as a linear function of solute concentrations. The resulting expression is presumed valid for any number of additional solutes as long as the solution can be regarded as "dilute". This assumption can be termed "the hypothesis of additivity". However, experimental tests of that hypothesis for quaternary or higher-order solutions have been extremely limited. Primarily such tests have been confined to studies of effects of added metallic elements on either the activity of carbon or the solubility of gases in liquid iron.7-13 The only known previous study of an all-metal system is the limited work of Okajima and pehlke14 on the effects of multiple solute additions on the activity of cadmium in liquid lead. The present investigation is a portion of the work to determine the effects of various solute additions on the activity of zinc in dilute solution with molten bismuth in the range 450" to 650C It was shown for such ternary solutions that second-order Taylor Series terms could be evaluated at the same time as first-order terms, with no additional experimentation required. A second-order solution model was described which, under certain conditions, is a rigorous representation of solute activity in a ternary solution. (In the sense employed in this paper, the term "model", as distinguished from "equation", is taken to mean an empirical correlation or formalism, but not a hypothetical physical system per se.) Presumably such a model could be extended to produce a better representation of In ? in solutions of even higher order. The feasibility of a generalized Taylor Series approach to solution interactions and inclusion of second-order terms also has been discussed recently by Lupis and Elliott in independent work concurrent with the present investigation. In addition, they discussed empirical means of estimating certain second -order coefficients.17 The utility of such solution models rests on the ability of a truncated series to represent adequately the experimental facts in multicomponent solutions. Questions that arise include: Do the second-order terms really make a significant contribution? How far away from "dilute" solution may such models be applied? Are the types and varieties of the additional solutes important? among others. In order to provide some answers to these questions, an experimental study was made of the effects of two or more additional solutes on the activity of zinc in dilute solution with molten bismuth. Comparisons were then made with calculated activity coefficients obtained using the previously determined ternary interaction parameters. INTERACTION MODELS As an example of the approach to defining activities in multicomponent solutions, consider the Taylor Series expansion for a quaternary system, i.e., three dilute solutes. Writing terms through second order, the result is:&apos;&apos;

Jan 1, 1968

By K. C. Strebig, C. W. Schultz, A. A. Selim

The effect of some organic additives in diamond drilling of quartzite was investigated in the laboratory. The drill was designed to measure the rate of penetration, the thrust, and the torque and to record each as a function of the distance drilled. A statistical plan was followed throughout the investigation and an equation representing the bit performance was derived from the mathematical theory of reliability. The drilling torque was found to increase with the use of additives while the sliding coefficient of friction and the wear coefficient decreased. The energy per unit volume consumed was found to increase with the use of additives. A hypothesis explaining the effects achieved with the additives is given. INTRODUCTION For some time researchers have attempted to increase drilling efficiency by adding certain agents to the flushing medium. Much of this interest is the result of the observations of Rehbinder, Shreiner and Zhigach1 They postulated that "...in processes for the mechanical destruction of solids, a region of increased crack formation is created in the deformed layers adjoining that surface of destruction, forming the predestmction zone. The surrounding medium (for example, a liquid) which wets a given solid will penetrate the embryo microcracks of the predestruc-tion zone. Increasing the molecular affinity of this liquid for the surface of the solid considerably facilitates the deformation and destruction by softening the solid in the zone of increased crack formation. In this manner, the hardness or strength of the deformed body is decreased by the influence of the penetration of the liquid into the predestraction zone." This is known as the "Rehbinder effect". Rehbinder&apos;s work has prompted many investigators to examine the effect of additives on the mechanical destruction of rocks. Engelmann, Terichow and Selim reported that the maximum penetration of the rock by a diamond point in a solution environment was at the isoelectric point of the solution.* Robinson reported that his results did not appear to support the theory of Rehbinder.3 Joris and .McLaren suggested that additives with surface tension lower than water will be more efficient in cooling the diamonds.4 Their effectiveness in removing the fine cuttings from the face of the bit will also improve the efficiency of the system. They reported an improvement in impregnated bit life and penetration rates with the use of soluble oil additives. In contrast, Long and Agnew, drilling with surface set bits, reported that lubricating agents increase bit temperature and wear.5 A significant change was reported6 in the mechanical properties of rock with polar additives. It was concluded that this change in the mechanical properties of the rock in the presence of the additive is due to the rock hydrophilic properties. Ethylene glycol, glycerine and anionic detergent were selected for this investigation because their surface tension is lower than that of water. The surface tension of these additives for the concentrations studied was 42 to 75 percent of the surface tension of water. A low surface tension additive would wet the surface of the diamonds more easily and hence would be more effective in cooling the diamonds. Another characteristic of these low surface tension additives is their effectiveness in removing the cuttings and preventing the flocculation of the formed particles in the drilling process. This article summarizes the results of an investigation performed at the laboratories of USBM, Twin Cities Mining Research Center. The objective of the investigation was to study the over-all effects of some organic additives on the performance of diamond impregnated bits in atmospheric drilling conditions only and not in downhole pressured conditions.

Jan 1, 1970

By Jerome Strauss

IN his review of developments in 1943, Gilbert Seil, Chairman of this Committee on Reduction of the Ferroalloy Ores, tabulated the consumption of the alloying metals in relation to the steel production of that year. In the year just closed the approximate tonnage was of the same order, differing only to a minor degree or suffering some correction with more precise figuses available, as indicated in the following estimates: Consumption Metals in Tons Steel 92,000,000* Manganese 700,000 Silicon 200,000 Chromium 200,000 Nickel 75,000 Molybdenum 20,000 Tungsten 8,000 Vanadium 1,700 Titanium 1.600 Boron 10 `Production figure. The technologic studies instituted during 1942 and carried forward with such great vigor during 1943 continued into 1944 although in some instances were brought to a close either by completion of the specific development

Jan 1, 1945