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By Tim J. Boyd

Gregg Marine, Inc. (headquartered in Signal Hill, California) has recently introduced an innovative seafloor drill system for offshore geotechnical site investigation and seafloor mineral exploration. The system is capable of working in water depths of up to 3,000 meters and is rated to drill to a depth of approximately 150 meters below mudline. The remote operated system integrates established drilling technology with proven Schilling telemetry and controls. The flexible nature of the patented wireline drilling technology enables the use of standard sampling systems (up to PQ-size core and 3? thin-walled tubes) as well as downhole testing systems (including CPT testing, vane shear testing, downhole sensors and borehole geophysical tools). The modular nature of the seabed drill system and the accompanying launch and recovery system (LARS) enables the use of local vessels of opportunity for projects resulting in reduced project costs and improved mobilization responsiveness times. Keywords: seafloor, seabed, geotechnical, drill, drilling, core, coring, sampling, CPT, cone penetration testing, borehole, logging, survey, exploration, ROV, remote sensing

Jan 1, 2011

By Elisabetta Tedeschi, Razieh Nejati Fard

Deep-sea mining is in the future perspective of mining industry and it is currently in the technological development phase. The focus of this study is on the electrical power system that provides sufficient energy for the mining equipment at the seafloor, excavating Seafloor Massive Sulfide (SMS) deposits. SMS deposits usually exist at water depths between 1500 m and 4000 m. Despite the similarities of SMS deposits excavation to the open-pit terrestrial mines, more energy is required to drill and crush the ores in the hyperbaric conditions [1], which can be done whether by static trench cutters [1] or by mobile mining crawlers [2]. In addition, the ores vertical transportation by subsea pumps requires several MW electrical power that can be supplied by all-electric subsea motors or hydraulically from water injection motors located on the surface. The power requirements can be fulfilled by an offshore or subsea power network. As the SMS mines are usually in remote locations, the straightforward solution will be an isolated offshore grid mounted on a vessel or platform similar to the most of offshore Oil & Gas projects. These power systems resemble the onshore microgrids for industrial purposes operating in island mode. However, in contrast with the onshore power networks, there are space and weight limitations in offshore infrastructures, which impose the design compactness to be a priority. In addition, having a very high reliability is necessary in the design approach of the offshore projects due to the extraordinary high expenses corresponding to repair and maintenance. The other design criterion is to improve the power system efficiency in order to reduce the size of the power equipment cooling apparatus, operational costs and CO2 emissions produced by diesel/LNG onboard generators. There are a few studies considering power system distribution for seafloor mining industry. Among them, [3] has investigated the AC and DC alternatives for SMS mining in 2400 m water depth by considering Solwara 1 project scenario introduced by Nautilus Minerals Inc. [2]. In this study, a power system design tool will be presented taking into account various water depth, power consumption levels, different distribution configurations (AC and DC) and the aforementioned design criteria.

Jan 1, 2018

By Maria Thornhill, Rolf Arne Kleiv

INTRODUCTION The last decade has given rise to an increasing number of deep-sea mining concepts (DSMCs) outlining technical solutions for the production chain from seafloor mining to mineral or metal extraction. The vast technological and logistical challenges coupled with immature but rapidly evolving technology has spawned a great variety in proposed concepts, and the exact implications of the phrase ‘best available technology’ is very much an open question. DSMCs differ significantly with respect to choice of technology, technological readiness level, degree of resource utilization, logistics, OPEX and CAPEX requirements, overall profitability, legal and political implications, not to mention environmental impact. Hence, a system for classifying concepts could provide a useful identification and structuring tool when performing economic, judicial or environmental assessments of DSMCs, as well as offering a general terminology to describe concepts sharing fundamental traits. This abstract proposes a DSMC classification system based on how a concept makes use of mineral separation at the different stages in the ore’s journey from the deposit to the ocean surface and ultimately to onshore facilities. Mineral separation, as a process step, is the key factor in determining both the state and mass flow of materials along the production chain and has, as such, a decisive effect on economy and environmental impact of any deep-sea mining project. A DSMC that is based on bringing the entire volume of broken ore to onshore facilities for processing will look very different from a concept based on pre-concentration (i.e. mineral separation) at the seafloor. Whereas the latter offers savings in the form of reduced energy cost for vertical transport, it also represents a substantial additional technological challenge. Furthermore, whether or not a concept relies on mineral processing at the seafloor or on a floating facility at the ocean surface above the deposit also determines the point at which mineral separation waste (i.e. tailings) must be managed. Different concepts offer different opportunities for tailings deposition, and are at the same time bound by different requirements.

Jan 1, 2018

By Jeremy Spearman, Mark Lee, Jon Taylor, Neil Crossouard, Bramley Murton

"SUMMARYThis paper describes challenges faced when executing a programme of monitoring to measure the dynamics of currents and sediment plumes at a seamount and the solutions identified to deliver the measurements. The study site was the Tropic Seamount, which extends some 3300m above the surrounding seabed and is found at the southern limit of the Canary Island Seamount Province. The purpose of the study, which forms part of the Marine E-tech project, was to provide information on the interaction of flows with the seamount and to assess the behaviour of sediment plumes that could be generated from potential seabed mining operations targeting the recovery of ferromanganese crusts. Since the crest of the seamount is submerged to a depth of 1000m, much of the work was undertaken using remotely operated and autonomous vehicles supported by measurements from the surface vessel. Despite only limited information on currents being available for planning purposes, the combination of short term forecasting using a 3-dimesional hydrodynamic model of the study area coupled with the collection and analysis of reconnaissance data collected during the first phase of measurement activities made it possible to plan and execute a number of detailed hydrodynamic experiments on the seamount crest. The results of these experiments have advanced the understanding of the behaviour of sediment plumes in the deep ocean and will ultimately improve our ability to manage the impacts which may arise from deep sea mining operations."

Jan 1, 2017

By Paulo Chaves, Márcia Gonçalves, João R. S. Carvalho, Fernando J. A. S. Barriga, Edgar Carrolo, Tiago Luna, Ricardo Rato, Anabela Bento

INTRODUCTION For the last decades, deep-sea marine resources such as seabed massive sulfides (SMS), polymetallic nodules and ferromanganese crusts (Fe-Mn crusts) have received an ever- increasing amount of attention worldwide for their abundance in critical metals and potential commercial value. This interest has mostly been driven by the growing world demand for raw materials, in particular for high- and green-technology applications (e.g., hybrid and electric cars, batteries, photovoltaic solar cells, cell phones, super magnets), as well as by industrialized countries governments other than BRICS states need to secure a more diversified supply of metals, resulting in a new deep ocean exploration boom. Since the oceans and its resources are increasingly seen as indispensable for humans needs and their challenges in the decades to come, this boom increments pressure on marine areas, either in international or within countries economic exclusive zone (EEZ). Since 2002, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has signed up 29 contracts with several entities and national governments from multiple countries (e.g., Japan, China, Germany, France, Russia, India, Rep. of Korea, UK, Canada, Brazil) for exploration for deep-sea mineral resources in international waters, either for scientific or commercial proposes, which together cover over 1.3 million km2 [1]. In turn, over 300 exploration licenses, covering more than 650,000 km2, have been granted within the EEZ of Pacific countries such as Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Fiji, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu [2, 3]. This number is expected to increase very rapidly, as 77 countries have proposed to the United Nations the extension of their continental shelf in order to extend their EEZ and jurisdiction over potential deep-sea mineral resources [4]. Its estimated that 42% of the potential areas for SMS occurrences, 54% for cobalt-rich Fe-Mn crusts, and 19% for polymetallic nodules lie within the EEZ of coastal countries [5]. In addition, a huge amount of seafloor is yet to be explored and evaluated. Combined, the size of the granted exploration areas represents less than 10% of the overall area thought as most favorable for the occurrence of the 3 types of deep-sea mineral resources above mentioned. This means that today’s assessments on deep-sea mineral resources are only a rough approximation.

Jan 1, 2018

By Philomene Verlaan

Analysis of the relationship between environmental parameters and the content of Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, Fe and Zn in ferromanganese crusts permits improved identification of locations to prospect for crusts with commercially valuable concentrations of these metals. In this study we asked whether a statistically significant relationship exists between primary productivity of the overlying surface waters, the concentration of O2 in and depth of the O2 minimum layer on the metal content of non-hydrothermal ferromanganese crusts in the Pacific Ocean between 130o W and 175o E and 0o to 30o S (the study area). To further develop the interpretation of the results of the statistical analysis and to assess in detail the geographical expression of these parameters in terms of metal content in crusts, a geostatistical technique (kriging) was used to generate contoured values for metal content, primary productivity and O2 concentration in and depth of the O2 minimum layer in the study area.

Jan 1, 2001

By Renee Grogan

"An environmental impact assessment (EIA) of a deep sea mining project typically describes the environmental baseline, impacts of the project to the environmental values, and proposed management techniques. Comprehensive EIAs also consider the impact of the mining project on existing industries, including deep sea fishing. However, few projects to date have included other industries in the EIA process in more than a cursory manner, due to the confidentiality of the process, conflicting priorities, and bureaucratic limitation. However, if the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (particularly Goal 17: Collaboration) are to be achieved, a new way of thinking will be necessary for deep sea mining projects, starting with collaboration at the very beginning of the project life cycle.STRUCTURE OF PRESENTATIONThis presentation will be in the format of an oral (20 minute presentation).The presentation will cover the process of inter-industry collaboration throughout the life cycle of a deep sea mining project, drawing on historical and existing examples, including that of the Chatham Rock Phosphate Project in New Zealand."

Jan 1, 2017

By Raymond A. Binns

Exploration for high-value massive sulfide deposits on the ocean floor typically commences with a search for chimney fields in appropriate geological settings, followed by collection and assaying of standing chimneys. Individual chimney fields are generally too small in aggregate volume to constitute viable resources in their own right. Unless numerous small fields occur in reasonably close proximity, presence of plentiful sub-seafloor mineralization with acceptable metal tenor is the more likely requirement for potential exploitation. Expensive drilling is required to prove up mounds of collapsed chimneys, or dilatory sheets and veins or replacements of massive/semimassive sulfide (?stockworks? or ?manto?-like bodies) in underlying host rock. Where multiple targets have been defined, as many parameters as possible are desirable to help rank them for drilling.

Jan 1, 2011

By Akira Usui

The details in small-scale variability of the geological occurrence and chemical composition of ferromanganese crusts are not yet well understood, although the northwestern Pacific seamounts are believed to be among the most promising areas for rare metal resources. Our belief is that geological observations and geochemical analyses are still insufficient for economic evaluation or for discussion of depositional processes and environments. Our team, composed of geologists, mineralogists, geochemists, physical engineers, and microbiologists has attempted to utilize an ROV for in-situ measurement and for sampling of undisturbed and uncontaminated ferromanganese crusts at three typical seamounts in the NW Pacific near the Japanese Exclusive Economic Zone. The first ROV geological survey of ferromanganese crusts was successfully completed, and the ROV proved to be the most powerful, efficient and elegant method to date. The collected samples (more than total 1 ton of crusts, at more than 100 sites along a total of approximately 10 km of survey lines) were most suitable to analyze water-depth dependency and secular variation of their composition. The intact surfaces of crusts, collected without the usual abrasion caused by dredging, were also valuable for microbial study of Mn oxidizing bacteria. The ROV sampling devices, however, can be improved with further sophisticated drills or rock saw blades in the future.

Jan 1, 2011

By T. Yamazaki, T. Goto, R. Arai, N. Nakatani

The importance of cobalt-rich manganese crusts on the Pacific seamounts for possible future rare metal sources has been recognized these 30 years. The thin layer-type coverage and the micro-topographic undulation of basement affect not only the excavation efficiency but also the economy of mining venture. Because of these distribution characteristics, no economic feasibility has been recognized through the past economic analyses. On the basis of a recent geological study about seamount rocks, a possibility of by-product substrate recovery for phosphorous supply with cobalt-rich manganese crust mining has been highlighted. In the mining model, the substrate rocks are utilized as phosphates for agricultural and chemical usages. Under some preliminary technical and economic assumptions, the possibility of cobalt-rich manganese crust mining venture is examined. The results show a better economy of the venture including the substrate rock usage for phosphorous supply. Introduction Cobalt-rich Manganese Crusts and the Economic Feasibility Cobalt-rich manganese crusts on the Pacific seamounts received attention as potential sources for strategic metals such as Co, Ni, Cu, and Mn, due to their vast distribution and higher cobalt concentration than manganese nodules (Cronan, 1980; Halbach, 1982; Manheim, 1986). In the earlier stage, the geological distribution characteristics were reported (Cronan, 1984; Clark et al., 1984; Misawa et al., 1987; Pichocki and Hoffert, 1987) and a systematic feasibility of the mining was studied (Hawaii DPED, 1987).

Jan 1, 2018

By Satya Nandan

• A review of the structure and mandate of the Authority – its main functions. • The different types of mineral resources found in the deep seabed – their global distribution. • The Development of Regulations for Prospecting and Exploration of Polymetallic Nodules, Cobalt-Rich Crusts and Polymetallic Sulphides including environmental regulations and guidelines. • Early constraints for deep seabed mining – Improving conditions for mining – Future prospects for mining.

By Robert M. Owen

Geochemical exploration for marine placers involves the acquisition, processing, and interpretation of geochemical data. Recent technological advances such as in-situ analysis systems and microcomputers have greatly improved our ability to acquire and process data, but their full benefits cannot be realized until we also develop improved methods for reducing and interpreting large amounts of raw geochemical data. Toward this end, our research has sought to identify existing and/or develop new geostatistical techniques for use in marine placer exploration. Each technique has been tested by evaluating its performance in the analysis of existing data sets. The data sets typically include the results of chemical analyses of suites of sediment samples collected from areas of known or suspected platinum and gold placers along the Bering Sea coast of Alaska. Results to date indicate that three geostatistical methods (subpopulation partitioning analysis, comparative factor analysis, and end-member compositional factor analysis) are useful in identifying elemental groups which can serve as "pathfinders" in the search for marine placers, and are also helpful in discerning the generic geochemical basis under lying observed statistical correlations between pathfinder elements and placer minerals. Existing methods of modelling sediment dispersal patterns have been examined with a view toward adapting them to the specific problem of understanding placer formation in

Jan 1, 1986

By Anthony T. Jones

Deep seabed mining requires technology to collect materials and transport them to the surface. An international patent search was conducted to define the state of the art in seabed mining technology. Over 350 patents were identified from 12 patent systems. The majority was from the United States, Japan, and the former USSR. Patent activity in this field peaked in 1983 when 34 patents were issued. Since 1984, on average 6 patents have been issued annually. The technology represents ten major classifications. With the exception of Deepsea Ventures, Kawasaki and International Nickel, it appears that much of the technology developed and tested in the 1970s by consortia active in seabed mining was never patented. Over the past two decades, identifiable trends in marine technology could influence seabed mining application such as more sophisticated communication systems, advances in hydraulic manipulators, improved computational technology in navigation, modeling of vessel ? ocean interactions, and improved materials. The most significant recent activity has been in European applications, which disclose remotely controlled subsea vehicles for mining diamonds.

Jan 1, 2001

By Tetsuo Yamazaki

Seafloor massive sulfides have been a subject of interest for profitable commercial mining these ten years. Because of the higher Au, Ag, and Cu contents, they have received much attention as immediate commercial mining targets by private companies and nations. Some of them already proposed the technologies necessary for the commercial mining. However, the technologies for survey, excavation, lifting, and ore dressing have not yet well been examined from viewpoint of the economy. In this presentation, the authors present some key factors and improvements for better economy in the mining.

Jan 1, 2010

By Mike Woodborne

The marine diamond industry off south-western Africa is maturing rapidly. Some of the larger explorers have reached an advanced stage in their resource development and new mining operations have been started in the last year. Most of the major exploration, mining and marine engineering companies have offices in Cape Town. As a result of the increased activity and experiences to date, new approaches to marine diamond exploration and mining are now evolving. Primary factors contributing the new approaches are namely 1) the concentration of expertise in a localised area 2) the significant increase in the base of available exploration and production results and 3) parallel advances in the marine engineering design and geophysical survey equipment. The sea floor geology and setting of the marine diamond exploration areas is now better understood. Consequently the strategy for exploration and the selection of appropriate survey equipment is improved. Due to new equipment developments, different exploration alternatives now exist, depending on the programme objectives. Significant advances have also been made in the data processing and modelling undertaken to assist in the identification and targeting of potentially diamondiferous prospecting features. Similarly, the design of appropriate prospecting tools and programmes has also been improved. Following exposure to the requirements of the marine diamond industry, the design engineering and operating companies have responded with innovative designs for new prospecting tools. In recent years the availability of relevant information on marine diamond prospecting and production has increased. As a result, there is now sufficient basis for the construction of meaningful financial valuation models that can be effectively used to control and guide the exploration projects, to the benefit of both the explorer and the investor.

Jan 1, 1998

By Harald Brekke

On 13 July 2000, the ISA adopted the Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area. The first contracts for such exploration were issued by the ISA the same year. The duration of exploration contracts is 15 years, after which the contractors are expected to go into exploitation. In 2013, ISA with the LTC initiated the process for developing the regulations for exploitation, and are currently working on the first draft to put forward for the Council. In the meantime, the first seven exploration contracts have expired, and been given five years extensions in order for the contractors to get ready to apply for exploitation contracts. According to the current draft of the exploitation regulations, an application for an exploitation contract shall be accompanied by all data acquired during the exploration phase, a mining plan, a financing plan, and a set of environmental plans (i.e. an environmental impact statement, an emergency response and contingency plan, environmental management and monitoring plan, and a closure plan). All of these plans have to be based on substantial scientific and technical data and information. The mining plan requires geoscientific data regarding the mineralogy and grade of the nodules, and the physiography of the mining site as a basis for the consideration of critical aspects, inter alia for making reliable resource estimations, design the mining operations, and forecast revenues. The environmental plans require the input of a substantial set of bioscientific data and information on the exploitation technology in order to establish base-lines, and monitor and evaluate the effects of the mining operations. Under the exploration contracts, such scientific data have been acquired and reported on an annual basis to the ISA. Some testing of mining equipment and experiments on the extraction of metals have also been performed by some contractors. These scientific and technical data from the exploration phase will be the basis for the for the preparation of the studies, plans and documents required for the applications for exploitation. No time frame is specified for the preparations of an application but it must be assumed to take place before the expiration of the exploration contract.

Jan 1, 2018

By R. P. Das

Processing of polymetallic nodules poses several challenges to metallurgists. These include the presence of at least 80 elements in nodule, presence of Ni, Cu, Co in no specific mineral form, presence of almost 30 % seawater in freshly collected nodule, and collection of slime along with the nodule. For almost 40 years, several research groups from all over the world are engaged in developing an appropriate process to extract metals from poly-metallic nodule. These processes have been tested in scales varying from few grams to several hundred kilograms (Das, 2001; Jandova, 2001). All these tests helped in defining various parameters for processing, and simultaneously brought out some of the inherent problems of processing nodules. Based on the information and the experience of all these studies, in recent years, most research groups, involved in developing metallurgical processes for nodule, are focusing their efforts in two or three alternative directions. While attempts are made to overcome some of the major challenges in processing, several new ones crop up. The difficulties are further compounded because no mining system is operating to generate some of the data required for process development. The aim of this presentation is to highlight the research efforts, and to identify areas requiring special attention of a process developer.

Jan 1, 2003

By Robert M. Owen

Recent advances in coring technology and in the development of shipboard and/or in situ geochemical geochemical analysis systems have greatly improved our ability to collect and analyze exploration samples, particularly for marine placer exploration programs. The potential benefit of these improvements cannot be fully realized, however, until we also develop more efficient methods of data reduction and interpretation. Specifically, there is a need to provide prospectors with rapid and useful interpretations of the raw geochemical data so that they can exploit promising results and otherwise optimize the exploration program while the exploration vessel is still at sea. The goal of this project has been to identify and/or develop computer software which is capable of making the necessary data reduction calculations and which can be run on conventional desk-top computers. All work on this project has been supported through a research grant from MMTC-CSD to The University of Michigan. The first stage of this effort involved an evaluation of commercially available (i.e., "off the shelf") software to determine its suitability for use in marine placer exploration applications. Various commercial software packages, each purportedly capable of making different types of statistical and/or mathematical calculations, were tested by evaluating their performance in handling geochemical data sets representative of actual marine placer locations. These data sets include the positions and results of chemical analyses of suites of sediment samples collected from areas of known or suspected marine placers along the Bering Sea coast of Alaska. The evaluation of each commercial program involved a comparison between the results obtained from using the test program

Jan 1, 1991

By Glen Smith

Nautilus Minerals is the world leader in exploration and development of deep ocean seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) resources. The company is currently focused on generating its resource pipeline in the Western Pacific and its first development project for recovery of high-grade copper, gold and silver mineralisation from its Solwara 1 site in the Bismarck Sea, Papua New Guinea. The Solwara 1 site is located at a water depth of 1,600 ? 1,800 meters. Over 150 SMS seafloor surface samples have been collected from chimney structures during dives made by remote operated vehicles (ROVs). In order to obtain an understanding of the sub-surface mineralisation, Nautilus carried out 4 drilling programs between 2006 and 2010 which allowed the calculation of a Canadian NI43-101 compliant resource estimate. The initial 2006 campaign was based on conventional offshore surface driven drill equipment. In conjunction with the subsea remote technology industry, Nautilus subsequently developed an ROV operated seafloor drill system with improved drill core recovery and efficiency. This technology was developed further with a 2010 - 2011 drill program to increase the available geological knowledge at Solwara 1 and adjacent prospects. his paper will provide an overview of Nautilus? SMS drilling requirements and recap the evolution of drilling technology and operations undertaken at Solwara 1 from 2006 to 2011. The paper will also discuss the potential of further developments in drilling techniques and equipment to increase or improve drilling depth, efficiency and data quality.

Jan 1, 2011

By Steinar L. Ellefmo, Thomas Kuhn

The deep-sea ocean floor offers a great potential for mineral resources. The evaluation of these resources is both time consuming and costly and require as any resource evaluation data; geodata. The collection of hard data, physical samples, is of course preferred because the associated uncertainty is low. However, the collection of soft data or image derived data can offer a valuable supplement. In this paper image derived nodule uncertain abundance data from an area in the Pacific is utilized. Implementing these uncertain data improves the estimation when the quality of the estimation is measured using the classification indicators like the kriging standard deviation, the relative prediction error, the slope of regression and the weight of the mean. It is concluded that uncertain data is better than no data. INTRODUCTION The deep-sea offers vast mineral resources (Cathles (2011), Hannington et al. (2011), Hannington (2013), Singer (2014)). A mineral resource can according to increasing geological confidence be classified as an inferred, an indicated or a measured resource. The classification is performed by a competent- or qualified person and is dependent on the amount, quality and characteristic of available geodata. The competent person must have at least five years of experience relevant to both the style of mineralisation, the type of deposit and the performed task. Typical examples of a “task” is for example resource estimation and classification or planning- and execution of exploration activities and presentations of the results. The competent person must also be a member or a fellow of a professional organisation and thereby be bound by reporting code (-s) that defines minimum standards, recommendations and guidelines for public reporting.

Jan 1, 2018