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This paper discusses the significant land use changes that have occurred in the Latrobe Valley during 150 years of white occupation. The developments and changes were haphazard and made with little thought as to their setting or their environmental consequences. As a result many landscape and land management problems have not been addressed.This paper contends that the mistakes will continue unless an overall plan for the landscape of the area is developed and implemented. The concept of 'Greening the Valley' is introduced. It aims to provide focus for a comprehensive co-ordinated plan which caters for the need to restore the landscape and the need to provide for future land use. The plan will seek to draw on three major landscape features of the Latrobe Valley: the natural setting of the hills, rivers, valleys and forests; the agricultural land use including the forestry plantations; and the industrial complexes and urban areas.Rehabilitation of mining areas is a key element of the plan but must be put in a regional context and not be treated as an isolated function of a single organisation. A major challenge will be to integrate the worked out areas into useful and significant landscapes. The paper concludes by explaining the process that will be followed in an attempt to realise the concept.

Jan 1, 1992

By R. B. Anderson

As a part of a Bureau of Mines program on the conversion of coal to liquid and gaseous fuels, the kinetics of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis on iron catalysts was investigated. Nitrided catalysts were studied at 21.4 atmospheres using feed gases ranging from 2H2+1CO to 0.25H2+1CO, and at 7.8 to 21.4 atmospheres using 1H2+1CO gas. The overall apparent activation energy increased with increasing carbon monoxide content of the feed gas from 19.5 kcal/mole for 2H2+1CO to 23.7 for 0.7H2+1CO. The rate of synthesis with 1H2+1CO feed increased linearly with operating pressure from 7.8 to 21.4 atmospheres. A semifundamental rate equation of the form [r=a'PH2 0.6pco 0.4- ?r0.5PH200.5] was shown to fit the data satisfactorily. The relative usage of hydrogen to carbon monoxide decreased with increasing conversion, passed a minimum, and then increased. Apparently water is the principal primary product and carbon dioxide is produced by subsequent water-gas shift reaction. In another group of experiments water, carbon dioxide, argon, and methane were added to 1H2+1CO feed to a nitrided iron catalyst. Argon and methane were only diluents. Carbon dioxide was a slight inhibitor and water vapor was a strong inhibitor to the rate of synthesis. Water accelerated the water-gas shift and usually increased methane production. Important factors of catalyst geometry in determining rate were found to be particle size and extent of reduction. Apparently the active portion of the catalyst is confined to a layer of 0.01 to 0.02 cm from the external surface of particles. A special solution was made of differential equations relating re¬action at the catalyst surface to diffusion in pores of the catalyst for spherical particles with an active layer surrounding an inert core. The equation derived expressed the experimental data reasonably well. Diffusivities determined by this equation varied from 3 to 24X10-6 cm2/sec; these values are of the same magnitude as observed for the diffusion of gases in liquid. The appendix presents a group of synthesis experiments at pressures of 21.4 to 103 atmospheres. In this range the rate of synthesis on nitrided iron catalysts increased with pressure to the 0.74 to 0.84 power.

Jan 1, 1964

By F. Albayrak

This report is a study of the impact of Federal laws and regulations on the domestic supply of metallic and nonmetallic minerals. The study was confined to pertinent environmental legislation and the recently enacted Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977. Emphasized were the legal requirements placed on individual selected mineral industries, and the economic impact of these requirements. A certain amount of attention was also directed to the particular environmental and health and safety problems generated by selected mineral industries. The study also pinpointed a list of major problem areas having significant impact on the domestic mineral supply.

Jan 1, 1978

An on-stream iron ore analyser has been developed in collaborationwith Hamersley Iron Pty. Limited for determining the iron content ofboth lump (- 30+ 6 mm particle size) and fines ( - 6 mm particle size)on conveyor belts. The analyser, which is called IRONSCAN, is basedon pair production, and is now commercially available from Mineral ControllnstrumentationLimited (MC!) in Adelaide. It can be mounted underexisting conveyor belts with minimal modifications to the conveyor structure,and the presence of steel cables in the belt does not interfere oncethe analyser has been correctly calibrated. The analyser has been extensivelytested on both lump and fines on the shiploading conveyor at Dampier,and typically the root mean square (Lm.s.) deviation between singleIRONSCAN measurements and conventional chemical analyses is betterthan 0.5070 Fe. It is currently being evaluated on - 150 mm ore from theprimary crusher at Mount Tom Price, and initial result are encouraging.The principal advantage of IRONSCAN is that it provides rapid informationon ore grades. But perhaps its greatest potential is at the primarycrusher where conventional sampling and analysis is very expensive toimplement.

Jan 1, 1988

By J. B. Rosenbaum

This report presents new findings and consolidates previously published data to provide a single reference containing a concise and comprehensive description of the Bureau's work on electrolytic chromium. Two separate systems for electrolytic-chromium recovery were developed, one designated as the oxidized system the other as the reduced system. The electrowinning of chromium metal follows the dissolution of chromium from the ore or from ferrochrome and its separation from gangue and metallic impurities. Chromite was first solubilized by pressure digestion at slightly elevated temperatures in an oxidized acid solution using Na2Cr2O7 as an oxidizing agent. Later it was found that a sodium-free electrolyte was preferable, using return-cell anolyte containing H2SO4 and Cr03 as the oxidizing agent. Gangue materials were separated from the soluble metallics by filtration; and, after the Cr+3 had been stabilized, the metallic impurities were separated as crystalline ammonium salts by vacuum crystallization.

Jan 1, 1957

By N. P. Kripakov

The Bureau of Mines has developed a unique new mine design procedure to determine the changing static load distributions imposed on under-ground support structures during the mining cycle. The procedure reduces the complexities associated with analyzing a three-dimensional problem. A combination of the multiple-seam displacement-discontinuity model and a two-dimensional finite-element window model produces refined results for a specific area of interest by assuming displacement compat-ibility between models. Input to the procedure includes the geometry of mined-out areas in up to two adjacent seams, the rock mass characteris-tics of the surrounding geology, the in situ stress conditions, and the mining sequence. The displacement-discontinuity program calculates ex-pected loadings for mine structures affected by the mining cycle and/or by overlying or underlying seams. Pseudoelastic finite-element analysis using a yield-factor approach determines the stability of coal pillars by simulating the degree and extent of nrogressive rib failure and sub-sequent load transfer. Application of the procedure is demonstrated on a field problem. In-duced stress changes predicted from the numerical model analysis are in reasonably good agreement with stress measurements obtained from an instrumented chain pillar affected by remnant workings in an upper seam.

Jan 1, 1988

By R Long

The founder of social psychology is sometimes identified as Kurt Lewin. In a 1947 article, Kurt Lewin coined the term ‘group dynamics’. He described this notion as the way that groups and individuals act and react to changing circumstances. Lewin theorised that when a group is established it becomes a unified system with unique dynamics that cannot be understood by evaluating members individually. The discipline of social psychology really emerged out of World War II and tackled questions associated with human judgement and decision-making by the Nazis. For a comprehensive look at the development of social psychology look at Abelson, Frey and Gregg (2004).Social psychology is concerned with the way social arrangements affect human judgement and decision-making. What the author has done is apply the knowledge of this new discipline to an understanding of risk, safety and leadership. This paper will explain some of the developments in social psychology, such as the discovery of the bystander effect, Groupthink, bounded rationality, heuristics, risk homeostasis and the Milgram effect.The social psychology of risk tackles the way decisions are made about risk in their social context. Unless organisations understand that decision-making is socially conditioned, they are unlikely to be able to tackle the complexities of culture change or the development of risk maturity.The paper will offer a new understanding of why people do what they do, how risk makes sense and why a ‘dumb down’ approach to safety is dangerous. A model will also be presented that shows the pathway to risk maturity.CITATION:Long, R, 2016. The social psychology of risk, safety and leadership maturity, in Proceedings Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), pp 31–42 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2016

By R. A. Cattell

Progress of Bureau of Mines research related to oil and gas during the past fiscal year has been marked by the publication of more than 40 reports on the various phases of the work . These include papers dealing with the production of oil and gas , transportation of gas , chemistry and refining of petroleum , thermodynamic properties of hydrocarbons , and the processing and utiliza- tion of helium . As an additional service to Pennsylvania oil operators , a new suboffice was opened in Bradford , Pa . , during the year . With this addition , the work of the Petroleum and Natural Gas Branch of the Bureau of Mines is now conducted in two large stations , the Petroleum Experiment Station , Bartlesville , Okla . , and the Petroleum and Oil Shale Experiment Station , Laramie , Wyo . , and three field offices and laboratories at San Francisco , Calif . , Dallas , Tex . , and Franklin, Pa., and two suboffices, Wichita Falls, Tex., and the newly opened suboffice at Bradford, Pa. In addition, this Branch operates large-scale helium-production plants in Texas, Kansas, and New Mexico, and maintains ex- tensive helium-bearing gas reserves in Texas and New Mexico. All helium opera- tions are supervised from headquarters at Amarillo, Tex. A small headquarters staff is in Washington, D. C. A backward glance at the road traveled during the past several years by the Petroleum and Natural Gas Eranch of the Bureau of Mines brings out a general background for the events of the fiscal year 1949. Throughout the fiscal year 1945, the activities of the Branch were still mainly concerned with such war activities as making special field studies for the Petroleum Adminis- tration for War, finding ways of increasing rates of production, and supplying data pertaining to the manufacture of aviation and jet-propulsion fuels. A period of adjustment came in 1946, characterized by a turning from war to peace procedures and efforts to give wide distribution to technical facts ob tained in wartime research; also, there came a realization that the demands of war had broadened the horizons of research. This was emphasized in 1947, when a peacetime program was restored, based upon the long view of the Bureau's place as a research agency in oil and gas. Close attention was given to tech- nical detail in 1948, and emphasis was placed on maintaining a balance between the industrial need for technical knowledge and Governmental-research possi- bilities in the fields of (1) withdrawal of petroleum from natural deposits, (2) utilization of petroleum and its products, and (3) commercial utilization of helium. Studies of petroleum production and utilization and helium production and utilization are the normal functions of the Branch. These functions (sometimes expressed in different words) have been the mainstay of this organization since initiation of the work. The details of approach vary with changing conditions, but, fundamentally, the functions have been the same in both peace and war. The work of the past fiscal year has emphasized the advantages that accrue when Government and industry join in a wise use of technical and scientific knowledge gained through research. Outstanding evidence of the beneficial results of cooperative effort by the Bureau of Mines and various organizations is found in the following typical examples, the details of which are discussed in the body of this report. Working in close cooperation with operators along the Gulf Coast, the Natural Gasoline Association of America, and the National Association of Cor- rosion Engineers, the Bureau found, through field testing, that corrosion protection by means of chromates in high-pressure gas-condensate wells costs less than $1 per million cubic feet of gas produced. Laboratory experiments to measure the corrosion effects of carbonic and propionic acids on various steels and alloy steels gave data that will serve as guides in the selection of new. materials for the construction of well equipment to be tested by industry under actual service conditions.

Feb 1, 1950

By John F. Wiggert

DURING the early years of Homestake operations, shaft signaling from the cage tenders to the hoisting engineers was done by mechanical means. Small steel cables or jointed steel rods were suspended in the shaft compartments and counterbalanced with weights or springs. These cables or rod strings were connected to the mechanically operated gongs at the engineers' stations by means of bell cranks and steel wires. The system was simple and economical and served the purpose well until the mine reached a depth of 1000 ft., then the system became slow and cumbersome and required a considerable amount of muscular effort to operate it with much speed, because of the inertia of the heavy moving parts. The mechanical signaling was superseded by a simple electrical system consisting of a single pair of wires in steel conduit for each shaft compartment. In the shaft at each station a pull switch was connected to the wires. The switches were operated by means of bell cords, which extended from station to station. This electrical system was a great improvement over the mechanical one, but it had one serious drawback, which also applied to the older system; namely, the engineer did not know where a signal originated. Later on this signaling was improved to overcome this drawback, and to give the engineer a positive indication of a signal's origin. In this system a separate return wire from each pull switch is carried to an annunciator at the engineer's station, where it indicates the signal's origin. While the annunciator system used by Homestake is very safe and reliable, it has the inherent drawback of all wire-connected systems in that it is impossible to send a signal from a moving cage. A number of years ago Homestake became interested in the possibility of using some sort of radio transmission for shaft signaling. The company did much experimental work with purely radio signal transmission, but no practical way was discovered to use radio transmission in a mine shaft for signaling to or from a cage. Therefore, all efforts were directed to devising a practical way of using the hoisting rope as part of the circuit. It was realized that the return circuit from the rope would need to be through electrostatic coupling between the cage and the earth or ground sides of the shaft, because the guides would not always be wet enough to make possible good electrical contact between the cage and earth, therefore relatively high-frequency alternating current was chosen as the medium of transmission. Soon a practical system was developed for transmitting an electric current from a moving cage over an electric circuit of which the hoisting rope was a part. A high-frequency electric current is used as a carrier to transmit the signals or mes-

Jan 1, 1941

Approximately half of all the fuel energy used in the United states is now pro-vided by oil and natural gas. A persistent and rapid growth in energy demand during the last 3 decades has been absorbed largely by the liquid and gaseous rather than solid fuels. In 1948 the energy provided by coal was substantially the same as in 1920. Meanwhile, the use of oil and natural gas each had increased fivefold. On a per capita basis, the change is more significant. Coal consumption has dropped from about 6 tons per person to 4-1/2 tons, while oil has increased from 4-1/3 barrels to 14-1/3, and natural gas from 7,500 cubic feet to about 35,000. These facts would have only academic interest if the United States had unlimited supplies of all fuels. However, while the Nation's reserves of coal are adequate to meet our needs for centuries, those of oil and natural gas appear limited. It is obvious, therefore, that the security of our liquid-fuel position would be greatly enhanced if the supply could be based in an increasing degree on solid fuels, such as coal and oil shale, which make up more than 95 percent of our fuel reserves, instead of natural oil and gas. In addition, this would create new employment and help to stabilize the market for coal, which may be facing comparatively bleak prospects in the near future unless its position with respect to other fuels is improved.

Jan 1, 1950

By G. Mark Aylmore

Various processes have been developed using a combination of elevated temperature and chemical treatment processing to recover Li from silicate minerals. To facilitate further process development, a comprehensive understanding of the deportment of Li and associated minerals in ore bodies is essential to allow the industry to predict the response of ore reserves to metallurgical treatment options. This paper describes results from the integrated use of the John de Laeter Centre’s state of the art analytical and mass spectrometry techniques to characterise a selection of Li bearing ore bodies and determine their amenability to potential processing options for the extraction of Li. The mineralogy, mineral associations, and liberation characteristics of ore-bearing and gangue minerals were characterised using a combination of the TIMA and XRPD studies. The Li content and distribution within minerals were defined using LA-ICPMS and field emission scanning electron microscopy techniques (EBSD, ToF-SIMS) and atomic probe microscopy.

1. Domestic Production and Use: Twelve companies operated 31 primary aluminum reduction plants, three firms accounting for 66% of production. Washington, Oregon, and Montana accounted for 32% of the total production; Gulf Coast States, 25%; Northern States, 29%; and other Southern States, 14%. Output of primary metal in 1973 was valued at $2.2 billion. About 80% of the secondary recovery was from new aluminum base scrap and 20% was from old scrap. Aluminum consumption by 25,000 firms was centered in the East Central United States. Of aluminum consuming industries in 1972, building accounted for 28%; transportation 19%; electrical, 13%; packaging, 16%; and consumer durab1es, 10%.

Jan 1, 1974

By Derek V. Ellis, Jack L. Littlepage

"Marine ecosystem effects ar1smg from the discharge of man-generated wastes to the sea can be schematized as: acute poisoning, chronic poisoning, enrichment, suffocation, temperature effects, salinity effects, toxin bio-concentration, changed production rates and changed species equilibria. A professionally designed site-specific monitoring program to check for such effects can not only safeguard the marine ecosystem from degradation, but it can also protect the industry involved from unanticipated remedial action after expensive construction has been undertaken. Monitoring programs should consist of three steps. Step 1 is an ecosystem survey which should be undertaken prior to final design of the discharge system and submission of applications for permission to discharge, because there can be considerable cost savings in obtaining information at an early stage in development. Step 2 involves location of the effluent field at the time of starting discharge, and analysing its dispersal behaviour. Step 3 consists of ecosystem monitoring with sampling stations and specific tests based on the accumulated prior information."

Jan 1, 1972

By G. Gavan

Analysis of reported injuries for off-highway haul trucks indicated that 42.7% were slip and fall, and of these 34.1% occurred mounting and dismounting the machine. Redesign of the lower steps was concluded to provide the most overall improvement for increased safety and accident reduction. Various existing, innovative and conceptual designs were reviewed and evaluated. The most promising candidate designs were the four-spring supported lower steps and the center tube mounted lower steps. Both configurations proved to be viable designs as they passed successfully human factors and survivability tests conducted at a large copper mine.

Jan 1, 1979

By T. V. Nguyen

The feedwell performance in gravity thickeners and clarifiers relies on the efficient mixing between solid particles and flocculant to achieve effective flocculation, as well as energy dissipation of the incoming feed stream. A population balance-computational fluid dynamics (PB-CFD) model has been developed and validated to provide new insights into the operation and performance of industrial feedwells. In particular, the PB-CFD model enables the efficacy of the main functions of a feedwell to be investigated for a wide range of feedwell designs and process conditions. This paper describes how PB-CFD was used in the design and development of a new feedwell concept for the flocculation of particles in a solid-liquid stream. The patented feedwell design includes an upwardly converging flow diverter to create two separate compartments for energy dissipation and flocculation. PB-CFD simulations of this simple and easy-to-retrofit feedwell design illustrate a superior performance in terms of flocculation and energy dissipation compared to typical feedwells over a wide range of flow conditions. The potential benefits include reduced flocculant consumption, better de-aeration, greater stability and the ability to cope with a wider variation in volumetric throughput, better flocculation and fines capture, and a more symmetrical discharge that may also offer improved overflow clarity in some applications. The new feedwell design has been installed in a full-scale thickener at an Anglo American Platinum site in South Africa. A number of operational factors complicate this application, but indications are that the new feedwell has led to improvements in stability and underflow properties.

Jan 1, 2012

By J. P. Allen

Cobalt, nickel, and manganese can be recovered quickly, cleanly, and selectively from cobalt-rich manganese crust by leaching in dilute acid solutions in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. Common selective precipitation methods can then be used to recover these metals from the leach liquor. The leaching reaction produces only oxygen as a byproduct, and the waste residue from leaching was tested and found to be non-hazardous under existing EPA specifications. The leaching process is effective in either fresh water or seawater. This research is a part of the Bureau of Mines program to identify the mineral resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone and devise methods for recovering their valuable components.

Jan 1, 1990

By J. E. Sepulveda

Tar sand deposits in the. Stare of Utah contain more than 25 billion barrels of in-place bitumen, Although thirty times smaller than the well-known Athabasca tar sands, Utah tar sands do represent a significant domestic energy resource comparable to the national crude oil reserves (31.3 billion barrels), The term "tar sand" refers to a consolidated mixture of bitumen and sand, Based upon a detailed analysis of the physical and chemical properties of both the bitumen and the sand, a hot-water extraction process for Utah tar sands is currently being developed in our laboratories at the University of Utah. This process involves intense agitation of the tar sand in a hot caustic solution and subsequent separation of the bitumen by a modified froth flotation technique., Experimental results indicated that, for a given tar sand sample, percent solids and caustic concentration were the two most important variables controlling the performance of the digestion stage, These variables were identified by means of an experimental, factorial design, in which coefficients of separation greater than 0.90 were realized. Although preliminary in nature, the experimental evidence gathered in this investigation seems to indicate that a hot-water extraction process for Utah tar sands would allow for the efficient utilization of this important energy resource.

Jan 1, 1978

By Keith L. Harris

Real2 gross national product (GNP) grew at a seasonally adjusted annual rate of 1.3% in the fourth quarter and at 2.5% for all of 1986, according to the most recent Department of Commerce estimates table 1). The 1986 GNP growth was the lowest since the recession in 1982, and was slightly below the estimate published in the last issue of Minerals and Materials. Barriers to greater economic growth in 1986 included the Federal budget deficit, the trade deficit, reduced energy-sector investment because of low oil prices, and uncertainty over changes in the Federal tax code.3 Major sectors of the economy responsible for the fourth-quarter growth included real Government purchases of goods and services, up $19.9 billion from the third-quarter level; real net exports, up $12.2 billion; real residential investment, up $3.0 billion; and nonresidential fixed investment, up $1.5 billion. The increase in Government purchases of goods and services was attributed to the S25.1 billion rise in net purchases of farm products by the Commodity Credit Corp-oration. Real personal consumption expenditures and inventory investment declined, however. Personal consumption expenditures declined primarily because of reduced motor vehicle purchases. Despite only modest growth during the fourth quarter, the economy improved significantly because of the narrowing of the trade deficit and growing employment (table 2) while maintaining low unemployment and inflation rates. Business sounded an optimistic note, with planned increases in current-dollar capital spending of 0.9% for 1987 compared with a 1.7% decrease in 1986. While it is primarily the nonmanufacturing industries that expect to increase investment from 1986 levels, some manufacturing industries are increasing investment by significant percentages as well, notably the steelmaking and nonferrous metals industries (table 3).

Jan 1, 1987

By B E. McCarthy

Red Dome Mine was a highly complex gold copper operation developed over a number of phases between mid-1986 to October 1997. With only three years of production ahead at any time, a proactive practical approach to mine closure was necessary. In 1989 the Domains Concept to life-of-mine planning and mine closure was created as a response to the proposed changes to legislation.The Domains Concept, a relatively simple idea developed to integrate mine closure during production at Red Dome, has been broadly adopted by both government agencies and industry in the intervening 20 year period. Over time the author has observed that the concept has been poorly applied, misunderstood and in some cases even misrepresented. As a consequence, the potential opportunities from applying the concept, including the optimisation and minimisation of life-of-mine costs, mitigation of long-term financial liability exposures and building credibility with the general community, have been missed.This paper examines the many benefits, advantages, applications and perceived barriers to developing and integrating a fully costed life-of-mine plan. Integrating the Domains Concept early in the project, within the operational budgeting, allows the production of a meaningful and useful document, representative of a whole life-of-mine, cradle to grave, with measurable rehabilitation and closure outcomes when the concept is used to full effect.The Domains Concept serves to optimise cost-effective, whole of mine, life cycle planning which provides beneficial outcomes for the community, significantly mitigates legacy issues and contributes to the attainment of compliance and sustainability principle objectives.CITATION:McCarthy, B E, 2014. The domains concept – 20 years on retrospective, obstacles and opportunities for effective life-of-mine implementation, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2014 , pp 621–636 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 16, 2014

By L. A. Conley

This report, covering the period January through December 1976, contains abstracts of articles related to cost engineering and economics for chemical and petroleum plants, mining, and other mineral industries from the following periodicals: 1. Air Pollution Control Association Journal 2. Chemical Engineering 3. Chemical Engineering Journal 4. Chemtech 5. Coal Age 6. Coal Mining and Processing 7. Combustion 8. Drilling-DCW 9. Electrical World 10. Engineering and Mining Journal

Jan 1, 1977