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By Thomas R. Smith

This paper covers oil shale resources in those countries that border the Pacific Rim. The major known resources around the Pacific Rim occur in the Western United States, Australia, the People's Republic of China, (PRC) and the Thailand/Burma region. The location of these deposits is shown in Figure 1. In 1965, the U.S. Geological Survey estimated world oil shale deposits of over 4 quadrillion tons having a potential oil yield of over 2 quadrillion barrels. If all this were extracted, it could meet the world's entire energy needs far into the future. However, the Survey also estimated the spent shale waste could cover all of the surface of the world to a depth of about 10 feet. Thus, for this and many other technical and economic reasons, it does not appear to be feasible to develop a large portion of the world's oil shale resources in this century; nor will shale in itself solve our energy problems. Nevertheless, shale oil and other ' synthetic fuels are expected to play an important role in new energy supplies in the longer term. WHAT IS OIL SHALE OR SHALE OIL? The term "oil shale" is sometimes a misnomer, in that the rock is often more of a limestone or siltstone than a shale. The common link between resources termed “oil shale" is that they all contain an insoluble substance cal led kerogen (which is from the Greek words for waxmaking). Kerogen is a form of organic carbon derived from a variety of plants ranging from algae to higher plants. When heated sufficiently, the kerogen generates hydrocarbons called shale oil, a form of synthetic crude oil that in most cases is lower in hydrogen content than conventional crude oil. The amount of oil in oil shale is relatively small --roughly 10 percent (by weight) in the richer shales. To upgrade this synthetic oil to usable products, additional processing is necessary. This brief sketch gives an idea of what this different, but significant, form of hydrocarbon is like. ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION Most oil shale deposits fall into three environments of sediment deposition: 1ake (called lacustrine), sea (marine) and river (fluvial-deltaic). In each case, the deposition of oil shales took place in quiet water environments where plant life, particularly algal plants, could flourish and, after dying, be deposited in unoxygenated water where the kerogen precursors would be safe from destruction by oxidation. The oil shales that were deposited in large lake basins (lacustrine) have attracted the most attention for development over the years. They often have multiple seams, deposited in a cyclic nature with extensive areal distribution and rapid vertical changes in kerogen content. Grades are moderate to high, ranging from 80 to 200 liters per tonne. Rundle in Australia and the Piceance Creek Basin in Colorado are examples of this type. Both deposits represent large volumes of oil shale in small areas which could provide the large volume of feedstock needed for future commercial operations. The stratigraphic sections of these two deposits feature thick oil shale seams with average grades of 80 - 125 liters/tonne conducive to both open pit, and underground operations. However, the rock strength of the Rundle shale is not sufficient to - support underground mining. On the other hand, the Colorado deposits, being more carbonate in nature, are sufficiently strong to support either type of mining depending on the overburden to ore ratio. These latter types of deposits will likely provide the first target for development of a commercial industry. The marine type is characterized by extensive areal distribution with relatively thin seams. The grades are generally low to moderate, ranging from 50 to 120 liters per tonne. The marine oil shales are common worldwide, and their attractiveness for mining is dependent on the overburden to ore ratio. Because of their widespread areal distribution, their in situ resources can be quite large. The Toolebuc Formation in Central , Queensland, Australia is a good example of this type of deposit being 7-10 meters thick over an extensive area. The Julia Creek deposit with its favorable overburden-to-ore ratio is being studied for possible development. In a fluvial-deltaic environment, there are many small lakes or bogs associated with rivers in which a very pure type of oil shale called torbanite could form. Torbanites are very high grade containing up to 75 percent hydrocarbons. The known occurrences are generally small lenticular deposits associated with coal seams. Even with the high grades, it is not likely that any of the known deposits would warrant commercial development because of their small size. The torbanite deposits in New South Wales, Australia were processed prior to World War I1 near the town of Glen Davis. However, today's known resources of this type are not large enough to warrant a commercial plant.

Jan 1, 1982

Discussion of the paper of Woolsey McA. Johnson, presented at the Butte meeting, August, 1913, and printed in Bulletin No. 79, July, 1913, pp. 1137 to 1145. F. L. GRAMMER, Leesburg, Va. (communication to the Secretary *):-Mr. Johnson's paper must interest by suggestion those connected with the " burning " of lime, the production of cement, and the smelting of iron. All iron men know how quickly the impalpable purple ore of wet origin reduces compared to finely ground red hematites of approximately identical composition obtained from Lake lump ores. Most housekeepers appreciate that the several forms of carbon-charcoal, coke, and anthracite, not to include graphite and diamond -have different temperatures of ignition. The temperature usually rises with the density and hardness. Some of the scientific bureaus of the government might appropriately conduct some tests along lines suggested by Mr. Johnson's article. We are unable to say whether the topic lies within the spheres of activity of the Bureau of Mines, the Bureau of Soils (Agricultural Department), the Geological Survey, or the Bureau of Standards. The calcining qualities of limestone is a topic too wide for individual effort and is of wide enough interest to merit government or State activity. It is of interest, as aforesaid, to burners of lime, cement manufacturers, and smelters. The chemical composition of a limestone does not tell all the story -if over 1-in. size lumps. The limestones of Annville and Myerstown, Pa., break at a tap; those on the Hudson above Poughkeepsie .act like "nigger heads." The manager of lime kilns near Lake Champlain told me his fuel consumption was high compared to that at other points. Yet the Hudson and Annville stones were both of greatest purity, being rivaled by only the marble at Rutland, Vt., or some stones near Martinsburg, W. Va. A local kiln operator says the conglomerate or pudding limestones of Loudoun county, Va., act very differently in the kiln from the more normal limestone deposits nearby. The tilted and twisted bedding in the anthracite region tells the story of hard coal origin. We might therefore expect that the limestones of greater geological age or depth or metamorphism

Jan 11, 1913

By F. Forscher

Pronounced porosity, decreasing with distance from the fracture surface, is found in the necked region of tensile specimens tested at room temperature or liquid nitrogen temperature. A hydrogen solution treatment followed by a quench prevents pore formation in tests at —196°C, but has little effect on tests made at room temperature. Reduction of area values at —196°C are strikingly improved by the same treatment, but show no improvement in room temperature tests. The experimental results support the hypothesis that strain-induced porosity results with hydride initially present or, in material containing less than 50 ppm H, with hydride precipitated by strain aging. ZIRCONIUM'S advent as an engineering material in nuclear reactor construction has brought forth many investigations concerned with the properties of this metal and its alloys. Some attention has been given to the ductility of the metal.1, 2 Particularly, the effect of hydrogen on the impact strength was noted," indicating a pronounced dependence of ductility on the hydrogen content and its distribution in the metal. Micro graphic:' and X-ray diffraction studies' have shown that a precipitated hydride phase causes embrittlement in zirconium,' which implies a distinctly different mechanism from that causing hydrogen embrittlement in steels."-' In the latter case, it is assumed that atomic hydrogen diffuses to rifts, where it forms molecular hydrogen under such internal pressures that it causes the rifts to enlarge, leading to fracture. Thermo-dynamic studies of the Zr-H system8, 9 also indicate that the internal pressure of molecular hydrogen would be too low to cause any damage to the zirconium at room temperature, and the formation of a zirconium hydride (d phase) is favored." It is noteworthy that this phase has a face-centered-cubic structure and nearly 18 pet larger molar volume than close-packed-hexagonal a-zlrconlum' Other features of the ductility of zirconium are the absence of a typical cup-cone failure upon tensile testing, a pronounced strain-induced porosity in the necked region of a tensile bar, Fig 1, and the associated spongy appearance of the fracture surface A tremendous improvement in ductility at liquid nitrogen temperature can be observed following a heat treatment that retains the commonly present quan- tities (10 to 50 ppm) of hydrogen in solution. Such tests show a typical cup-cone failure and the absence of strain-induced porosity, Fig. 2. The present paper reports results of an investigation into the causes of strain-induced porosity in zirconium. Room temperature tensile fractures of mild steel, aluminum, and titanium have also been examined for strain-induced porosity. In each case porosity could be detected, but the amount was orders of magnitude less than was found in zirconium. Of the three metals, titanium showed the strongest effect. Material, Specimens, and Preparation The greater part of this investigation was done on Westinghouse crystal bar zirconium, are-melted, forged, and hot-rolled. Chemical analyses of the hot-rolled plates are given in Table I, along with those of the Foote crystal bar zirconium used in this work. The specimens were machined from the hot-rolled plate (1550°F) of 1/2 in. thickness and subsequently heat-treated according to one of the treatments shown in Table IS. All specimens were machined round, the longitudinal axis in the rolling direction, with a gage

Jan 1, 1957

1. Healthy and active Local Section or¬ganizations are vital factors in promoting the vigor and growth of the Institute. 2. Activity on the part of Local Sections should be recognized and stimulated by appropriation of funds from the Insti¬tute's treasury; and these appropriations should be as large as is consistent with the relative needs for other activities. 3. As between different Sections, the amount of such appropriations should be based primarily on the extent of activities as reflected in the number and character of meetings held and the attendance of the members at such meetings. 4. In making a request for funds for any year, the officers of a Local Section should submit a report on the printed form approved by the Directors at their meeting on November 19, 1937. 5. A standing Committee on Local Sec-

Jan 1, 1944

By Johnson Crawford, Alan H. Hoagland

Zinc mining at Jefferson City began in 1854 with small scale production of oxidized ore from open pits. Significant production began in 1913 with the development of the Mascot Mine by the American Zinc Company. In 1965, four flotation mills were treating crude ore at the rate of about 12,000 tons per day and the Mascot-Jefferson City district currently is the largest zinc producing area in the United States. The producing mines, Mascot, Young, North Friends Station, New Market Zinc, Grasselli, Davis-Bible, Coy, and the Jefferson City, are 15 to 28 miles northeast of Knoxville in the Valley and Ridge physiographic province, an area of gentle relief lying between the more rugged Great Smoky Mountains and the Cumberland escarpment. The ore is strata bound, occurring essentially within a stratigraphic range of 200 feet in the Lower Kingsport and Upper Longview formations of Lower Ordovician age. In the lower strata of the mineralized section, the ore generally is found in coarsely crystalline elastic dolomite breccia containing silica and chert debris within a sequence of aphanitic limestones. The upper strata of the mineralized section are fine-grained primary dolomites that, in the ore zones, have been fragmented in mosaic patterns by solution collapse with the interfragmental space filled by white gangue dolomite and sphalerite. The mineralogy is unusually simple, sphalerite being the only important sulfide. Pyrite is very sparse. Dolomite gangue is abundant, silica was deposited in quite small amounts, calcite is minor, and fluorite and barite are very rare. The principal ore controlling structures are rubble breccia zones that were formed during the post-Lower Ordovician-pre-Middle Ordovician erosion interval by supergene solution as a phase of the development of a regional karst system of underground drainage that extended to' depths of at least 800 feet. The major Appalachian orogenic structures are post-ore and have been superimposed on the ore bodies. There is substantial evidence to support the current thinking of the writers that the ore deposits were formed at a depth not exc1~eding 800 feet.

Jan 1, 1968

By A. J. Chellew, Robert Condit

THE Company maintains a port agency at Antofagasta for dispatching copper and also for receiving from ocean vessels the vast variety of materials and supplies required at the plant. Copper shipments from the oxide plant refinery to Antofagasta amounted to 162,000 metric tons during 1951, while incoming freight totalled 175,000 metric tons. Electrolytic market copper in various shapes is currently loaded at the plant upon 20 or 30-ton cars of the meter-gage Antofagasta-Bolivia Railroad, to be transported a distance of 165 miles to the company's yard at Antofagasta. Here it is unloaded by cranes at the rate of about 175 tons per hr. Copper not scheduled for immediate shipment is stocked in tiers within the yard, but most of it is reloaded and sent to port works or a wharf serving lighters. Some of the vessels entering Antofagasta tie up at the port works, while others anchor inside the breakwater. In the latter case, all of the loading into the hatches is from 50-ton lighters towed to the vessel. When the vessel is at the dock, about half of the copper is loaded by port works cranes and the other half is loaded by ship's tackle from lighters. Fuel Oil Requirement Expands One of the innovations caused by the construction of the sulphide plant has been the necessity to provide facilities at Antofagasta for receiving and storing greater quantities of fuel oil than in recent years. From here it is loaded into tank cars for transportation to Chuquicamata. The older installation consisted of a 10-in. submarine pipe line, heating, and pumping facilities, a 67,500-bbl storage tank, and railroad loading rack, located at Antofagasta's northern limits. Two new tanks, of 80,000 and 30,000-bbl capacity respectively, have now been added and a second submarine pipe line will shortly be installed. Fuel oil requirements for the sulphide plant are estimated at 39,000 bbl per month, in addition to which 9000 bbl per month are required for the operation of the oxide plant. The company has a special lighter which is used by its diver for connecting the oil line with the oil tanker when disembarking oil, this lighter also being used for inspecting and overhauling buoys, as well as for recovery of bars of copper which are sometimes dropped into the bay when loading vessels during periods of rough weather. Transport of oil to Chuquicamata is by 76 tank cars of, 20-ton capacity and 20 of 30-ton capacity, all assigned to the company's fuel oil shipments excepting six for Diesel oil and one for gasoline. Incoming Freight Other freight received by the port agency has been averaging about 4800 metric tons per month of operating supplies for the oxide plant (renewals of equipment, spare parts, lubricating oils, and greases, etc.), some 1900 metric tons per month for the company stores, and about 6000 metric tons per month of materials and equipment for the construction of the sulphide plant. The greater part of these shipments (particularly the operating and construction supplies) originate from abroad, and must be handled through the Chilean Customs. Hence the company maintains a Customs storage warehouse (goods pending appraisal of Customs duties) in addition to its other storage facilities at Antofagasta. Not the least of the Port Agency's duties is to meet air and steamer passengers en route to Chuquicamata and to arrange for their trips up the hill. Landing in a strange country with a strange language, the first impressions of a new employee might otherwise be indeed confusing when facing Antofagasta's unique setting of brown barren hills.

Jan 1, 1952

By J. W. Snavely

THE part that acceleration plays in starting a belt conveyor and its effect on belt conveyor design are well understood in a general way. Its practical importance is easily overlooked, however, and under some conditions, it is absolutely necessary to give the problem of acceleration detailed study. Most handbooks on conveyor belting design adequately present basic data for the determination of acceleration values. This paper will only attempt to present practical thinking and a convenient method of treatment of acceleration in belt conveyor design. Mathematical Analysis In working out the various problems of conveyor belt acceleration, the starting point, as presented by the handbooks, is the familiar formula of "force of acceleration is equal to the mass times acceleration." By expressing these fundamental quantities in terms of belt conveyor design, it is possible to arrive at the unsuspected conclusion that the acceleration time for horizontal belt conveyors is independent of the load, and instead, dependent upon the belt speed, the type of drive arrangement and drive pulley, and the idler coefficient of friction. The mathematics leading to this conclusion are shown in Table I, which has been prepared to show, this derivation. While at first the conclusion just given may not seem to be reasonable, further reflection indicates that obviously the type of drive pulley and the type of drive do affect materially the tension in the conveyor belt, and thus, as clearly shown, the time of acceleration is dependent upon the factors mentioned. Inasmuch as all of the factors except time are predetermined by the belt conveyor design, it becomes relatively easy to establish the accelerating time and to reduce further this time determination to a simple graph from which the time in seconds can be read directly. Such a graph is given in Fig. 1. The table appearing on Fig. 1 should be explained further. For a given belt speed, the time of acceleration can be expressed as a percentage of the belt speed. The time of acceleration is also dependent on the drive arrangement, and changes in the drive arrangement consequently change the time of acceleration. It further follows that for a given belt speed, the time expressed as a percentage of that belt speed also changes with the type of drive. Obviously then, it becomes possible to graph the percentage of speed for each type of drive against the belt speed and accelerating time, after which, for a given belt speed and type of drive, the time can be read directly in seconds. Two constants were established for Fig. 1, the first one being the limiting of the maximum acceleration tension to 35 pct of the full load operating tension in the belt. The purpose of this is to limit the total tension imposed upon the belt during the acceleration period to 135 pct of the full load operating tension, which is the amount required to start or breakaway the fully loaded belt conveyor from rest. The other constant is the friction factor used for the idler equipment, which has been established as 0.022. For installations where it is necessary to establish the values of acceleration, invariably high grade idler equipment is used, and it has been established from. field experience that 0.022 for the idler friction factor is amply conservative. The use of this friction factor for idlers must be tempered with judgment, of course, for occasions will arise where more power than indicated is required to start, even with the very best of equipment, such as low temperature operations that tend to congeal the grease in the bearings and thus produce additional friction drag. An inspection of the table in Fig. I affords a convenient rule of thumb method for determining the acceleration time, which conveniently can be 5 pct of the belt speed in seconds. The 5 pct of belt speed figure is close to the average for most types of drives. In using Fig. 1 it must be emphasized that it applies accurately to horizontal belt conveyors only.

Jan 1, 1952

By J. A. Herbst, K. Rajamani

INTRODUCTION Recent research has shown that popu- lation balance models hold considerabl e promise as a basis for accurate mill scale-up from laboratory batch grinding tests. It has been shown that entire product size distributions from large ball mills can be predicted from data obtained in tests in small mills with errors of less than one or two percent. This level of accuracy has been demonstrated for batch grinding scale-up (Herbst and Fuerstenau, 1980; Austin, 1973; and Malghan and Fuerstenau, 1976) and for continuous grinding scale-up (Herbst, et a1., 1976; Herbst, Rajamani and Sanchez, 1982; and Herbst, Rajamani and Lo, 1982) in commercial mills up to 14.5 x 32 feet. A procedure which has been proposed for commercial mill design using the population balance approach and specific power information is shown in Figure 1 (Herbst and Fuerstenau, 1980). Here batch grinding data (size distributions for various energy inputs) obtained in a small batch mill is input to an estimation program which determines the "best" set of breakage rate parameters from the data provided. In turn, these breakage rate parameters are input to a scale-up program along with traditional inputs such as: a) desired circuit throughput and product size b) circuit operating conditions including fraction of critical speed and fractional ball load, size distribution and % solids in feed and circulating load (if closed circuit). In addition, since the population balance approach relies on more detailed models of the grinding circuit sub- processes than the classical design methods do, it is necessary to provide input to the scale-up program on the nature of material transport through the mill (e.g. residence time distribution information) and classifier performance characteristics (e .g. selectivity functions). The scale-up program will make the design calculations including the selection of mill dimensions and drive requirements, will predict product size distributions throughout the commercial circuit and will provide information on the sensitivity of the design to errors in the design assumptions. In order to implement such a scale- up scheme it is necessary to have a computer program for parameter estimation and a program for scale-up prediction. A program which is suitable for parameter estimation, ESTIMILL, has been developed and tested on a wide variety of ores at the University of Utah. This program has been in use in

Jan 1, 1982

By Strathmore R. B. Cooke, Marcus Digre

That calcium will activate quartz for flotation with anionic collectors such as soaps has been known for a number of years,12'3 and the method has been applied to the concentration of various iron ores4 5 6 as well as to other materials. Clemmer gives the permissible pH range for the activation of quartz by calcium as between 9.5 and 12.5 with an optimum value of 11.0, and Hertzog7 has determined the calcium abstraction of iron ores and of Ottawa sand, but otherwise little quantitative data are available. The purpose of the present investigation was to determine those conditions under which dilute solutions of calcium chloride will activate quartz for anionic flotation and to determine the amount of calcium ion adsorbed by quartz. Those variables, the influence of which was primary, such as calcium, sodium, and hydrogen ion concentrations, were studied. Other factors which influenced the results are discussed in the description of the experiments. Three different experimental methods were used to determine the activation of the quartz. The first method was to treat a sample of ground, deslimed quartz with solutions of calcium chloride and sodium hydroxide, and to determine the calcium adsorbed by chemical analysis of the solution. Advantages are that a direct value for the amount of calcium adsorbed is obtained, and introduction of a collector which may affect the adsorption is avoided. The difficulty is to determine the extremely small differences in the calcium concentrations before and after the abstraction. The second method was to determine the activation of the quartz by observing the contact angle obtained on pressing an air bubble against the polished surface of a piece of quartz immersed in a solution of calcium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and sodium oleate. This is the well-known "contact angle" method. The third method was to determine those conditions under which an air bubble will pick up quartz particles immersed in a solution of the desired reagents. Disadvantages common to the sec- ond and third methods are that introduction of a collector is necessary to obtain bubble contact with the mineral; very small quantities of contaminant can give erroneous results; and no information is obtainable concerning the amount of calcium adsorbed. Advantages are that tedious analyses, which at best give approximate results, are avoided, and the conditions, especially for the third method, closely simulate those of actual flotation. Although the most consistent results were obtained with the third method, this paper describes the techniques used and the results obtained from each of the three methods. Distilled water and analytical grade reagents were used throughout except where otherwise stated. Between tests all glass articles were cleaned with a chromic-sulphuric acid mixture and sodium hydroxide. Abstraction Method The raw material for the tests was Ottawa sand sized between 14 and 28 mesh. Batches of 500 g of this sand were dry ground for 1 hr in an Abbe porcelain mill with 2700 g of quartz pebbles. The batches were split down to samples weighing approximately 30 g, and the weight of each sample was adjusted to exactly this value.

Jan 1, 1950

By AIME AIME

IN accordance with the custom of recent years, the Institute joined with the Western Division of the American Mining Congress in holding a joint meeting at Joplin on Sept. 28, 29 and 30. Actually the meeting might be said to have begun on the 27th, since the Engineering Education Committee held two sessions on that day, which are reported on another page. In addition to these sessions there were informal gatherings in the Hotel Conner, which was the headquarters, on the golf links and elsewhere of all those who had arrived by Sunday morning. The technical sessions were formally opened on Monday morning by Robert E. Tally who, after suitable preliminary remarks, introduced A. Scott Thompson, of Miami, Okla. Mr. Thompson in welcoming the visitors to the Tri-State district said that it had come to be known as a poor man's country and at the present price of zinc did not find it difficult to live up to its name. He also referred to the work Mr. Tally had done for the stabilization of the mineral industry. H. Foster Bain, in responding to this address for the Institute, said that mining men generally felt at home in Joplin, that the solutions of their problems and the general practice that had been developed in the district were not only of great interest to them, but that visitors could learn much

Jan 1, 1931

By P. D. White, J. T. Moss, J. S. McNiel

Results of experimental work on the in situ combustion process were first published in this country in 1953' when Kuhn and Koch described results of a three-well test in Jefferson County, Okla. Shortly there-after Grant and Szasz2 described field studies in Nowata County, Okla., in which several modifications of the basic combustion process were investigated by injection of various oxidizing gas mixtures other than air. In the past five years speculation concerning this method of oil recovery has continued, with a number of interesting papers on various aspects of in situ combustion appearing in the literature3,4,5,6,7. However, only one of these' provided actual engineering information on pattern-type field experiments. The primary objectives of the Oklahoma three-well test were to check operation of specially designed electrical ignition equipment and evaluate problems associated with initiation of combustion in a natural oil sand reservoir. Immediately following successful completion of this test in the Pontotoc sand, plans were activated for a second field experiment to be conducted in the same sand a short distance away. The objective of this second field test1 as to establish a relationship between field observations and information derived from laboratory experimentation and computations. Secondary objectives of the test were to develop operating tech- niques and define operating problems, and to obtain information that would assist in the economic and engineering appraisals of the process. Careful planning was required since this test was designed with the hope of providing basic information on the characteristics and operation of a combustion drive. It was necessary to include test facilities which would not only permit precise control and measurement of the process variables but would also provide sufficient flexibility of control to insure that variables in the combustion process could be studied during the course of the test under a wide range of conditions. In order to accomplish these objectives elaborate instrumentation and several control wells were included in the design of the test installation. This type installation was felt to be well suited for an experimental study, but was in no respect intended as a counterpart of a commercial-scale operation. PRELIMINARY LABORATORY WORK An important objective of the field experiment, as stated previously, has been to obtain reliable data on operating variables which might be compared with similar data obtained in laboratory combustion tests. The value of successful correlations between quantities that can be measured in the laboratory and those obtained in a full-scale commercial venture has been well established for other industrial processes. The difficulty of following a process underground should make such correlations even more essential here. Also. approaching the field test phase of development of in situ combustion, it was considered desirable to precede design of test equipment with laboratory combustion studies under a variety of conditions to establish likely ranges of variables. These included temperature, air injection rate, frontal advance rate and produced gas composition.

By HAROLD VINTON COES

MANAGEMENT has been tersely defined as getting things done through the efforts of other people; but before we proceed further, let us distinguish between administration, management, and organization. Oliver Sheldon in his book, "The Philosophy of Management," offers the following definitions: Administration is the function in industry concerned in the determination of the corporate policy, the co-ordination of finance, production, and distribution, the settlement of the compass of the organization, and the ultimate control of the executive.

Jan 1, 1943

By J. T. Eash, E. M. Wise

In a previous communication1 the improvement in slrength, harden-ability and color, occasioned by replacing gold in a typical gold-silver-copper alloy by various amounts of platinum, or palladium, was discussed. In the present paper the results of further studies upon the constitution and the nature of the hardening transformation in these alloys are presented. This research may be summarized as follows: 1. The liquidus and solidus have been determined for the alloys of the palladium and platinum series. Cooling curves were utilized for determining the liquidus of the palladium alloys but this method proved unsuitable for the platinum alloys so that a novel quenching method was utilized for the latter. Both the liquidus and solidus of the palladium alloys increase steadily with the palladium content. The liquidus of the platinum alloys increases rapidly with the platinum content, while the solidus temperature increases with the platinum content up to about 14 atomic per cent platinum, but suffers no further increase with additional increments of platinum up to 20 atomic per cent at least, owing to a peritectic reaction. 2. Palladium, and even more effectively platinum, reduces the rate of grain growth. Owing to this fact and to the increase in the solidus temperature, "overheating" does little or no damage to alloys containing reasonable quantities of these elements. This is confirmed both by tensile tests and metallographic examination. 3. The excess phase present in one of the high-platinum-content alloys has been isolated and chemically analyzed and was found to consist almost wholly of platinum, gold, and copper, evidently derived from the compound AuCu, by the partial replacement of gold by platinum. 4. The variation in the solubility of this platinum-content phase in the alpha solid solution with the temperature has been determined. This

Jan 1, 1933

By E. G. Bailey

The bituminous coal industry faces a real problem, if it desires to retain the position in the power-generation field to which it is economi-cally entitled. More power is probably produced today for electrical energy, for steam-driven and steam-heating industries and processes, for transportation by rail, water, highway and air, collectively, than ever before, and yet the total bituminous coal production has decreased about 38 per cent, from 575,000,000 tons in 1926 to 357,500,000 tons in 1934. It is not the intention of the writer to recommend coal as a fuel for automobiles and airplanes, but rather to point to these forms of transpor-tation as being responsible in a very measurable degree for reducing the coal consumed by railroads. Petroleum products may still further reduce consumption of locomotive fuel through the extension of the use of Diesel-driven trains. Oil-burning steam-driven locomotives are replacing coal in some places, where railroads operating high-speed pas-senger trains are willing, temporarily at least, to pay a premium for the fuel, that is low in ash and produces less smoke and practically no cinders. In the navy and ocean-going passenger ships, oil is so firmly estab-lished, and has such definite advantages over coal as formerly fired, in steaming radius, in ease of bunkering, cleanliness, and reduction in firing labor, that very outstanding developments in the handling and burning of coal will be required in order to replace oil. For freighters on the Great Lakes, coal is the logical fuel, but there is great and immediate need of radical improvements in its use, else that market also may be lessened. It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss in detail bitumi-nous coal for either locomotive or marine use, but, rather, generation of power in stationary plants, consisting of electrical generating stations and that very large group of miscellaneous industrial plants, such as paper, rubber, textile, steel and other industries that use electrical, mechanical, and steam power, derived from either hydro or some form of fuel.

Jan 1, 1935

By E. A. Breitenbach

A computer program has been developed to afford rapid and complete quantitative log analysis for exploration and production decisions. The computation consists of automatic selection of tops and bottoms of porous intervals from the digitized data, and then point-by-point calculations within each selected interval. Nearly all log types can be analyzed. This paper presents the calculation techniques found to be appticable to machine evaluation and gives examples of their use. INTRODUCTION As the quantitative interpretation of well logs entails repetitive use of charts and equations, it is natural that digital computer programs would be written. A Universal Log Interpretation Computer Program (ULICP) has been developed to afiord rapid and complete analysis for exploration and production decisions. Application of this program enables the log analyst to: (I) apply rapid quantitative log analysis for exploration and production decisions on either a field, a well or on a single zone basis; (2) apply concepts of interpretation requiring detailed numerical analysis; (3) analyze all porous intervals on each log, rather than a few selected zones, and complete the analysis in less time than previously required. Computations are reported for every digitized point in each zone; (4) use empirical techniques applicable to a given area as an integral part of the computation; (5) experiment with the empirical coefficients and exponents in the interpretation equations to find the best possible solution; and (6) automatically plot both the original and computed data to scales analogous to the field prints. The primary utility of a log interpretation program stems from its ability to do an overwhelming amount of work with very little man-power. If a calculation procedure or thought process can be formalized to the extent that step-by-step logic can be written, a computer program can be developed that follows this logic. The major question is one of economics. A feasibility study of the costs for such a program indicates that digital processing is economical primarily as a means of increasing the productivity of the log analyst. In effect, the probability of missing productive intervals in any well, because of a lack of time to do detailed calculations, is greatly reduced. The nucleus of ULICP is programmed to compute large sections of a suite of logs by selecting zones automatically and then performing all pertinent computations on a data point by data point basis within each zone.'.' An entire suite of logs can be processed in this manner with very little manual intervention. Sufficient programming logic is available so that each log analyst can request computations pertinent to his area. These requests are made by simple additions or deletions of information on the input header cards. Hence, the log analyst is always in complete control of the computation process. The evaluation of a suite of logs requires pre-editing, digitization, computation, presentation of results and interpretation. Work by the log analyst is reqilired only in pre-editing and interpretation. Thus, he is allowed more time for comprehensive interpretation, rather than calculation. For continuity, the discussion of ULICP is organized sequentially: pre-editing, digitization, computation and presentation of results. DISCUSSION PRE-EDITING The extent of pre-editing prior to computation is dependent on the format of the original data. For analog prints, it requires inspection, correlation and editing of the logs, plus the entering of required data an special forms. For digitized data such as magnetic tape field recordings, only the special forms are necessary. The process for analog prints will be given here. The inspection and correlation process involves the selection of sections for digitization and the correlation of the traces to a common depth. To decrease the cost of digitization, traces that exhibit large variations in shale formations can be redrawn to a non-zero baseline. The next step is to enter all pertinent data on the input header cards. The header cards presently used for ULICP are presented as Figs. 1 through 6. Cards 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Fig. 1) are defined as the Main Header Cards. They describe the particular well for output identification and give basic information. Cards 5 through 15 (Figs. 2 through 6) are defined as the Block Header Cards. As such, they define the log types and the interpretation parameters for the block of data immediately following. Cards 1 through 10 are required for every computer run. Cards 11 through 14 pertain only to nuclear logs. Card 11 is required if any nuclear log is supplied, and cards 12 through 14 are required only when gamma-ray, density or neutron log data, respectively, are supplied. Card 15 (Fig. 6) must be supplied when cross-plot calculations are required. Either two- or three-component

Jan 1, 1967

By Louis Moyd

In the preparation of illustrations to accompany reports of investigations concerning particle shapes of various natural and manufactured materials proposed for use as he aggretates in concrete structures, it was found that stereoscopic views of such materials presented the information much more effectively than the usual two-dimensional photographs. With the whole-hearted cooperation of the Photographic Section, a technique was developed in the petro-graphic laboratory of the Concrete Research Division, U.S. Corps of Engineers, at Clinton, Miss., for simple and rapid preparation of paired stereoscopic photographs and micrographs. The method requires only equipment which is usually part of the general stock of any laboratory, and it is adaptable for all purposes in which three-dimensional views would be found superior to ordinary photographs. Stereoscopic Photographs Where the subject or subjects to be photographed are small but not of microscopic size, an ordinary camera having a ground-glass focusing screen is set up vertically over the field. The material to be photographed is placed on a card, the surface of which is suitable as a background. The card is mounted so that it can be tilted about 5' above and below the horizontal plane, on an axis that coincides with the north-south diameter of the viewing screen. A simple way of achieving this is to mount the card on an object having a convex lower surface. In our laboratory, a watch-glass has been used, with plasticene as the mounting medium. The convex surface should be mounted on a support having a round opening on top and a flat bottom. A roll of tape, a petri dish, a beaker, or any other piece of equipment having the proper shape to give stability to the setup will be satisfactory. The arrangement of the required equipment is shown in Fig 1. For the best results, the subject to be photographed should be mounted in the plane of the axis of rotation. To achieve this effect, the depth of the mass of plasticene between the background and the watch-glass is varied so that when the watch-glass is tilted back and forth on the axis, the subject to be photographed does not appear to move back and forth across the viewing screen. A permanent piece of equipment, embodying an adjustable vertical screw, with lock-nuts, could be made for this purpose. The subject may be illuminated in any manner desired. It was found that the presence of shadows intensifies the effect of depth. In taking the photographs, the concave surface is mounted so that one side of the background card is about 5' below the horizontal, while the axis remains in the horizontal plane. The subject is focused carefully on the ground glass and a picture is taken. The card is then tilted so that the opposite side is about 5' below the horizontal, while the axis still remains in the horizontal plane. The subject is again put in focus and another picture is taken. After both pictures are developed and printed, they are placed side by side in the same orientation and examined with a stereoscopic viewer. If depressions appear where there ought

Jan 1, 1950

By Wm. Reuben Webster

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. The brass containing 70 per cent copper and brasses (using this term to denote all useful 30 per cent zinc. Fig. 3 shows the effect of proportions of the two constituents) are the annealing at various temperatures on the most valuable and widely employed of all same alloy. This effect is somewhat modi- nonferrous alloys, because of their high resistance to ordinary corrosive agencies and the very wide range of properties that may be imparted to them by variations in the proportions of the constituents and by variations in mechanical treatment and heat-treatment. Fig. I shows the normal physical properties, as determined by standard tensile tests, of the series when in the annealed condition. Fig. 2 shows the effect of varying amounts of cold-working on an almost pure fied by the degree of cold-working to which a brass has been subjected, as shown by Fig. 4. A fourth test, which is empirical, has been found useful because of its simplicity —the hot hammer test. Samples 1/2 in. in diameter and 3/4 in. long are placed in a suitable furnace. These are withdrawn one at a time. at successively higher temperatures and are subjected to the blow of a drop hammer weighing 50 lb. with a drop of 4 ft. The percentages of reduction in length of the cylinders are plotted against temperatures and give a camparative measure of plasticity at different temperatures. The results of this test on several

Jan 1, 1942

By Wm. Reuben Webster

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. The brass containing 70 per cent copper and brasses (using this term to denote all useful 30 per cent zinc. Fig. 3 shows the effect of proportions of the two constituents) are the annealing at various temperatures on the most valuable and widely employed of all same alloy. This effect is somewhat modi- nonferrous alloys, because of their high resistance to ordinary corrosive agencies and the very wide range of properties that may be imparted to them by variations in the proportions of the constituents and by variations in mechanical treatment and heat-treatment. Fig. I shows the normal physical properties, as determined by standard tensile tests, of the series when in the annealed condition. Fig. 2 shows the effect of varying amounts of cold-working on an almost pure fied by the degree of cold-working to which a brass has been subjected, as shown by Fig. 4. A fourth test, which is empirical, has been found useful because of its simplicity —the hot hammer test. Samples 1/2 in. in diameter and 3/4 in. long are placed in a suitable furnace. These are withdrawn one at a time. at successively higher temperatures and are subjected to the blow of a drop hammer weighing 50 lb. with a drop of 4 ft. The percentages of reduction in length of the cylinders are plotted against temperatures and give a camparative measure of plasticity at different temperatures. The results of this test on several

Jan 1, 1942

By Walter Miller

During no similar period in the development of petroleum refining technology has so much progress been made in methods and equipment for the economical utilization of heat. Drastically severe commercial and economical conditions controlling the refining industry during 1927 gave a great impetus to improved efficiency and more economical operation in all departments. I think it is fair to say, however, that more progress has been made in the department of heat utilization than in other branches. I use the word utilization advisedly in the dual sense of better primary generation and application of heat and of saving by recovery methods. It was because of this trend that the subject, "Economical Application of Heat," was made the keynote of the refinery engineering sessions just completed. No new, outstanding elemental discoveries can be claimed for the year along this line. Some of the progress made has been in the development of better furnaces and distilling equipment embodying the more modern principles of boiler practice in obtaining complete combustion of the fuel, low excess air requirements and high transfer rates through the heating surface. Transfer rates of 3000 to 6000 B. t. u. per sq. ft. per hr. were considered good some time ago in the older type of equipment. Today a transfer rate of 25,000 to 35,000 B. t. u. is an actual accomplishment in commercial installations and engineers are talking of the feasibility of 50,000, 75,000, even 100,000 R. t. u. per sq. ft. per hr. Contributing most to bringing this about have been the rational use of the velocity factor on both the oil and firing side of the heating surface, and the study and application of the principles of radiant heat in furnace design. Vapor Heat Economy The principle of heat exchange, especially against oil vapors, has been applied to a greater extent than ever before. The recovery of heat from oil vapors is not new. This was practiced 20 years ago or more in Europe,

Jan 1, 1928

By F. Louis Grammer

The following study of flue-dirt and the influences controlling it may be interesting to many. It is published because it represents observations at about thirty furnaces at different times. It may assist in giving an impetus to the making of similar observations elsewhere. Until ten years ago, the metallic waste in furnace-gases was not considered a problem of pressing urgency in iron metallurgy—certainly not in the blastfurnace end of it. Many plants at present ignore, or pay but little attention to, top-pressures. Prior to the introduction of Mesabi ore, the losses in escaping gases, if considered at all, were regarded as thermal losses, or losses of fuel (except by those interested in lead, zinc, silver, etc.). In a high-priced material like ferro-manganese, such losses were, indeed, considered important. But the behavior of the Mesabi ores, corning, as they did, in practically inexhaustible quantities, could not be disregarded by the furnaceman. These ores came to stay. The tables appended below have purposely been altered to disguise the plant, the company and the ores used. The comparative values are maintained. In these tables, the influencing elements and conditions which are constant, or practically so, namely, size of furnace, quantity of wind, fuel used, etc., are not mentioned. The figures represent observations consistently followed up for a long period. The weights of flue-dirt were obtained from cars on which no other dirt was thrown. The analyses and calculations are based on the best of sampling. The effects of slips are excluded. Slips should not occur at well-regulated or properly-constructed furnaces, excepting under unusual and rare conditions. Allowances are made for moisture, scrap charged and silicon in the metal. The cutting effect of Mesabi

Jan 1, 1904