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By Walter W. Fisher, Samuel Rudy

Secondary treated sewage effluent was substituted for normal process water in laboratory tests simulating froth flotation recovery of copper and molybdenum sulfides. Sewage effluent caused significant detrimental response in the flotation process. First, a voluminous, uncontrollable froth was generated, even in the absence of a frothing agent, that has little mineral carrying ability. Second, sewage effluent caused a small loss in copper recovery and a large loss in molybdenum recovery. The detrimental effects of sewage effluent on flotation were partially overcome by tertiary treatment of the effluent by activated carbon adsorption and anion exchange. The frothing problem was significantly reduced after treating the sewage effluent by foam fractionation. Dilution of the effluent with normal process water resulted in a significant improvement in metal recovery. In addition, the large loss in molybdenum recovery was overcome by using a secondary collector in a combination reagent schedule. However, the secondary collector caused an appreciable loss in copper recovery.

Jan 1, 1979

TO THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS Gentlemen -The Institute was founded 54 years ago "with the object of promoting the arts and sciences connected with the economic production of the useful minerals and metals and the welfare of those employed in these industries by means of meetings for social intercourse and the reading and discussion of professional papers, and to circulate by means of publications among its members and associates the information thus obtained" At least once a year it is well to take stock of our assets, review our performance and determine how well we are now carrying out the purposes of our Founders There can be no question as to the work the Institute has done and is doing in promoting the arts and sciences in the fields of mining and metallurgy One needs only to contiast the methods, the labor and the costs of a half century ago with those now to visualize how far we have gone in the development of accurate technology and sound economics in mineral and metal production The great mines, mills and smelters of the present, handling individually thousands of tons per day, would have been impossible except for the accumulation of knowledge, the development of theory, and the improvement in practice that has charac¬terized the period since the foundation of the Institute The United States has prospered in the last half century greatly, and this has been due not merely to the possession of great natural resources, but to these resources being reduced to possession and put to work The absence of customs barriers and the freedom of trade across the whole width of this great continent has been an important factor in the growth of our wealth Unrestricted interchange of goods has permitted each citizen to draw on the resources of the whole country However, these are but subsidiary causes of prosperity The free interchange of scientific and technical data, by making the whole body of facts and theory available to each worker, has made this quick and unrivaled development possible In promoting this free trade in knowledge the Institute may claim a large place without fear of denial The 72 volumes of TRANSACTIONS, the special volumes, the bulletins and the other pub¬lications that have been issued, include a store of knowledge of the arts and sciences related to the pioduction and use of metals and minerals not duplicated elsewhere The large list of foreign members-1746 in number-few of whom ever have opportunity to attend meetings and all of whom derive their main benefits from membership through the pub-

Jan 1, 1923

By Y. Shimomura, M. Serizawa, Y. Takahashi, K. Miyagawa

The "semi-pellet" sintering method developed and currently being used at the Fuji Iron & Steel's Hirohata Works is discusssd. It is shown that the method makes fine-sized material easily sinterable and increases sinter production. The operation can be incorporated readily into conventional sintering plants. Sintering plant raw materials currently being used in the Hirohata Works consist of 40 pct pyrite cinder, 40 pct fines resulting from crushing and screening of imported ores, and 20 pct others, such as mill scale and iron sands. Pyrite cinder, a major component in the sinter feed, has been getting finer since 1952, due to the increased grinding required for the improvement of the results in the iron sulfide flotation and to the adoption of FluoSolid roasters in sul-furic acid plants; some fines pass 100-mesh sieve almost completely. Increased use of the fine-sized pyrite cinders in the sinter raw mix resulted in such difficulties as decreased bed permeability, uneven firing conditions, and low yield. In an attempt to study the cause and to find a remedy for this problem, a series of experiments were made, using an 80-kg experimental sintering pan. As a result it was established that, by rolling the fine-sized pyrite cinders into small balls of 10 to 3 mm diam (hereafter called semi-pellets) and mixing them into the sinter raw mix, the bed permeability was improved, the sintering time shortened, and the yield and production rate increased. It is proposed that this new method be called the semi-pellet sintem'ng. In recent years the pelletizing process has taken the spotlight in the agglomeration field for treating fine-sized ores here in Japan as well as in the U.S. and Europe. This process produces pellets suitable for the blast furnace charge as such, and consists of three major operations: fine grinding, balling, and firing. With regard to the firing technique, some problems still appear unsolved. In the semi-pellet sintering, however, several ad- vantages can be claimed: the balling operation is relatively simple because only small-sized balls are shown to be acceptable and the operation can be readily incorporated into the conventional sintering plant, since only balling, not grinding or firing, equipment is needed. Basic test work on the process was initiated in 1954 and favorable results were obtained. Accordingly a pilot plant was built in 1955 and the test work was continued. The semi-pellets thus prepared in the pilot plant were tested further by USing them in the actual sintering pan and their beneficial effects ascertained. In late 1956 a drum-type balling machine (2.4X4 m) was installed and it went into operation in April 1957 in conjunction with the Greenawalt sintering plant (8 pans having dimensions of 7.2 m in length, 3 m in width, and 0.3 m in depth). In October 1958 a cone-type pelletizer, with a 2.2 m diam, and later a disk-type pelletizer were further added in the plant. In the DL sintering plant (2000 tpd), newly built in July, 1960, four disk-type pelletizers (3.2 m diam, 10 tph capacity) were installed. By mixing the semi-pellets thus prepared with the feed, the sintering operation was found to be greatly improved. The results of the basic test work, and the equipment and operation of the semi-pellet sintering operation at the Hirohata Works will be described. ON THE SINTERING CHARACTERISTICS OF FINE SIZED PYRITE CINDERS To ascertain the effect of addition of fine-sized pyrite cinders on the sintering characteristics, a series of measurements on bed permeability was carried out by varying the size distribution of pyrite cinders. The composition of the raw mix used in the tests was fixed at 50 pct pyrite cinder, 20 pct Larap magnetite fines, 30 pct sinter return, and 5 pct coke; only the size distribution of the pyrite cinder was varied. Also the moisture content was changed at each size distribution. The results are given in Fig. 1. For all pyrite cinders tested the bed

Jan 1, 1961

By Paul C. Merritt

Samuel Hopkins, an 18th century inventor from Philadelphia, has been little noted nor long remembered by History, but it was he who on July 31, 1790, obtained what no other man can ever achieve -the first patent issued by the Government of the United States. Signed by President George Washington, the patent guaranteed to Hopkins the protection of the American Government for his "improvement, not known or used before, . . . in the making of Potash . . . by a new Apparatus and Process." The patent itself is no longer important, but it serves as a milestone in the development of an industry that is now rapidly moving to fulfill its role as a mineral to feed the world. Potash ranks as one of the oldest products of Man, having been used as a condiment by the habitants of Gaul a thousand years before Athens achieved its Golden Age of culture. By Hopkins' time, the uses of potash had changed considerably, going primarily into glass-making, tanning, soap, and explosives, yet the same sources and techniques of manufacturing potash used during the earlier 2000 years-that is, leaching of plant ashes in iron pots with water, followed by water evaporation and crystallization of the potassium salts-were still being used.

Jan 10, 1966

By E. I. Larsen, E. F. Swazy, F. R. Hensel

EXPERIENCE has indicated that hard bronzes are not suitable for bearing applications where high bearing loads and speeds are involved. It is the general practice to utilize softer materials for these purposes, such as copper, lead, silver, babbitt, lead-base alloys, and more recently aluminum-base alloys, preferably supported by a steel backing. It was the objective of the present investigation to study a new material produced by powder metallurgical methods susceptible to precipitation-hardening. TEST MATERIALS Preliminary tests were made with compacts containing copper, nickel and silicon in quantities sufficient to form 3 to 5 per cent nickel silicide. It was found that this type of alloy was susceptible to the formation of a soft surface shell when sintered in tank hydrogen. The depth of the shell depended on the length of sintering time and sintering temperature, and varied in thickness from a few thousandths to as much as one eighth inch. This soft shell resulted from the preferential oxidation of silicon, thereby reducing the efficiency of age-hardening by the nickel silicide compound. The body of the sintered compacts below the soft shell could be precipitation-hardened to a hardness of 70 to 85 Rockwell B, by quenching from. 900°C. and age-hardening at 450°C. A series of tests was made with various addition agents, in order to decrease the rate of preferential oxidation, and it was found that phosphorus was most beneficial in this respect. After considerable experimentation, the following nominal composition was accepted as standard: 2.4 per cent nickel; 0.8 silicon; 0.3 phosphorus; balance copper. The physical properties and certain bearing properties of this alloy are described in the present paper. PREPARATION OF COMPACTS Several methods of incorporating the hardening ingredient (nickel silicide) were studied. Compacts formed from copper, nickel and silicon powders were found to be inferior to those fabricated from prealloyed nickel silicide master alloys, because of the rapid oxidation of pure silicon during sintering. The use of a prealloyed nickel silicide hardener containing 25 per cent silicon and 75 per cent nickel could be further improved by preparing a master alloy, incorporating nickel, silicon, phosphorus and copper, having the following nominal composition: 25 per cent nickel; 7 silicon; 3 phosphorus; 64 copper. This alloy is brittle in. the cast condition and can be readily powdered. SINTERING PROCEDURE The blended powders were pressed at 25 to 40 tons per sq. in., the pressure depending on the size and shape of the compacts. Sintering was carried out in hydrogen or cracked ammonia atmospheres at

Jan 1, 1946

By Ford R. Bryan, Edward F. Runge

BECAUSE of the need for ductile heat resistant alloys of non-strategic composition, there has been metallurgical development of Fe-A1 alloys possessing improved ductility and hot strength, together with high oxidation resistance. Iron and alu- minum form solid solutions up to approximately 35 pct Al. Alloys in the 8 to 12 pct A1 range are characterized by excellent oxidation resistance, high electrical resistivity' and, when appropriately alloyed, have creep rupture strength equivalent to that of the austenitic stainless steels.' At higher aluminum levels, the magnetic properties are of considerable interest. Nachman and Buehler" have recently reported on the desirable magnetic characteristics of the 16 pct alloy.

Jan 1, 1957

By Cleland N. Conwell

APPLICATION of seismic methods to the location of buried channels in placer mining is fairly common knowledge, yet some of the facets of seismic refraction surveys have remained obscure in their application to mining. This description by a member of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation team investigating bedrock at the Oso Dam site, may offer a lead to wider application of the method for bedrock determinations in engineering of mine and mill plants, tailing disposal, and water supply. It may also offer assistance in planning geological exploration in areas covered by overburden. Pertinent, and perhaps more than passingly significant, is that the seismic survey of the Oso dam site started at noon and was completed the afternoon of the next day. Location Oso dam site is on the Navajo River, Archuleta, County, Colo., 30 miles southeast of Pagosa Springs, Colo., 10 miles northwest of Chama, N. M. Bedrock at the proposed dam site is Mesa Verde Formation, Cretaceous age sandstone. The nearest good sandstone exposure is about 5/8 of a mile upstream from the location of the seismic determinations. The material above bedrock is sand and gravel with sandy loam soil covering benches above the river. The site appeared favorable, after a geologic and topographic reconnaissance, but overburden thickness was unknown. Exploratory drilling was not contemplated in the near future so a short seismic investigation was selected as the most suitable method of determining depth to bedrock. Field Procedure Geophysically, a seismic depth investigation is simply the measurement of depth from ground surface to the top of a layer which transmits seismic waves at a higher velocity. In this case the high-velocity seismic layer tentatively correlates with the Mesa Verde sandstone. Field procedure required a seismic explorationline or "spread" with 12 geophones set at measured intervals. Explosive charges were buried at few feet in the ground and detonated at shotpoints near the ends of the spread, and at intermediate points. The time of travel of the seismic waves from the shotpoints through the ground to each of the geophones along the spread was measured and recorded photographically with equipment housed in a field truck. The seismograph on each spread provided a time-travel graph. From it were computed the speed of seismic waves in various layers below the surface and depth to each different seismic layer below the shotpoint. In the case of the Oso dam site it was possible, in addition, to determine the depths below certain geophones, because there were only two seismic layers involved. Interpretation In seismic exploration waves are refracted from the top of layers which often correspond to divisions between subsurface formations. When drill holes are available the geologic logs offer a means of correlating stratigraphic breaks with seismic layers, improving reliability of seismic interpretation in terms of depth to bedrock or other geologic terms. There were no drill holes available in the case of the work at the Oso dam site. Geologic conditions appeared favorable for seismic technique because of excellent contrast in seismic wave velocity between the overburden and the Mesa Verde formation. The upper layer had a velocity of approximately 2500 fps and was interpreted as overburden, the lower layer had a velocity of approximately 9000 fps and was assumed to be the sandstone. These velocities are of the order expected in these materials. The seismographs obtained at the Oso dam site were excellent. The energy from the shot came in strongly at each geophone, giving an easily read record. Time-travel graphs plotted from wave arrival times were uniform and made interpretation comparatively easy. In Spreads 1 and 2 near the river the lower velocity layer was 12 to 15 ft deep. For the spreads on higher ground, or the bench south of the river, it was from 15 to 29 ft deep.

Jan 1, 1952

By J. W. Onuscheck

The oxygen-fuel oil burner lance is a very useful tool at the Monessen B.O.F. It increases the overall flexibility of the operation. An additional 15,000 to 20,000 ingot tons can be produced at a given hot metal supply. It helps overcome sporadic drops in hot metal thermal values and/or supply. It results in increased yield, in particular, on high carbon heats where much yield was lost on reblow triggered slag reactions. The burner has also been adopted as a standard tool to aid burning in new vessel linings. Overall, steelmaking performance has improved with the use of standard preheat practice. Scrap charges up to 50 percent have been used routinely in times of extreme hot metal shortages, but the performance is weak in some categories. Development of a single step oxy-oil process is in progress. In this process, scrap and hot metal are charged as in the normal B.O.F. practice, but fuel oil is fired with the refining oxygen.

Jan 1, 1972

By J. E. Johnson

OF the many items of information necessary to the successful management of the blast-furnace, few are more important than knowledge of the location and movement of the stock-line: whether the furnace is full and has. been kept so; whether the stock is settling regularly or slipping; and, if slipping, how often it has slipped, at what times, and how far at each time. To obtain these data, a man is sometimes stationed at the top of a. pair of mechanically-filled furnaces, simply to watch and gauge them by hand in the old-fashioned way. - A more recent practice is the suspension of test-rods from ropes leading over pulleys to the ground-level, where the ropes are wound on small drums with graduated peripheries and provided with crank-handles, whereby the skip-man or some other person can quickly and conveniently gauge the position of the stock-line in the furnace. I believe the credit for this great improvement belongs to Messrs. McClure & Phillips of Sharon, Pa., who were, as far as I know, the first to apply it, and who have a patent for it. The valuable indications gained by application of the Uehling pyrometer to the down-comer are Dot to be ignored; but the information thus furnished is somewhat indi¬rect, and there is no scale for the translation of "top-tempera¬tures " into " feet down." Moreover, this apparatus as a whole is delicate, and the cost of its installation and maintenance is high. If the record furnished by the Uehling pyrometer is not in the most desirable form, the test-rods, on the other hand, give no record at all, except through the memory, or notes of a man who, to say the least, is not gauging continuously, and who may omit to report an improperly low stock-line, if it be due to a fault of his own.

Mar 1, 1905

By Roy A. Lindgren

SINCE the year 1643, when the first blast furnace in America for treating iron ore was built at Saugus, Mass., out of mica schist quarried in the neighboring district, the procurement of a suitable refractory for furnace lining has been a problem of concern to the operators of furnaces. The stacks built of mica schist continued to smelt iron ore until about 1836, when, according to F. H. Norton, the first firebrick were produced', at Queens Run, Pa. Other writers speak of brick having been molded and burned in Massachusetts about the year 1834. In 1841, Andrew Russell began to produce medium refractory plastic clay brick near East Liverpool, Ohio, that were used for lining blast furnaces'. The well-known Kentucky clay-producing district was not opened up until the year 1871, but since then it has produced a large percentage of the linings for iron blast furnaces. While some strides have been made by the refractories industry during the 100 years that have passed since the first firebrick were produced, it has been only during the last two decades that any real progress has been made towards bettering the product, even though the method of production had improved. Perhaps the fault lies with the user of the brick rather than with the producer, for not sooner demanding a supe¬rior product. During the past 15 years the tonnage produced per lining has increased from 500,000 gross tons to 1,000,000 gross tons, and now some furnaces are producing 1,600,000 gross tons and better on a single lining. It is true that enlarged capacity of furnaces and improved practice have accounted for some of this increase in tonnage, nevertheless better quality in firebrick must be given credit for its share. However, we are not yet ready to say that we have reached a maximum life of furnace lining. We believe that a better product can be produced and that the refractories industries of America will, through their extensive research depart-

Jan 1, 1937

By Roy Lindgren

SINCE the year 1643, when the first blast furnace in America for treating iron ore was built at Saugus, Mass., out of mica schist quarried in the neighboring district, the procurement of a suitable refractory for furnace lining has been a problem of concern to the operators of furnaces. The stacks built of mica schist continued to smelt iron ore until about 1836, when, according to F. H. Norton, the first firebrick were produced1, at Queens Run, Pa. Other writers speak of brick having been molded and burned in Massachusetts about the year 1834. In 1841, Andrew Russell began to produce medium refractory plastic clay brick near East Liverpool, Ohio, that were used for lining blast furnaces1. The well-known Kentucky clay-producing district was not opened up until the year 1871, but since then it has produced a large percentage of the linings for iron blast furnaces. While some strides have been made by the refractories industry during the 100 years that have passed since the first firebrick were produced, it has been only during the last two decades that any real progress has been made towards bettering the product, even though the method of production had improved. Perhaps the fault lies with the user of the brick rather than with the producer, for not sooner demanding a supe-rior product. During the past 15 years the tonnage produced per lining has increased from 500,000 gross tons to 1,000,000 gross tons, and now some furnaces are producing 1,600,000 gross tons and better on a single lining. It is true that enlarged capacity of furnaces and improved practice have accounted for some of this increase in tonnage, nevertheless better quality in firebrick must be given credit for its share. However, we are not yet ready to say that we have reached a maximum life of furnace lining. We believe that a better product can be produced and that the refractories industries of America will, through their extensive research depart-

Jan 1, 1936

By Roy Lindgren

SINCE the year 1643, when the first blast furnace in America for treating iron ore was built at Saugus, Mass., out of mica schist quarried in the neighboring district, the procurement of a suitable refractory for furnace lining has been a problem of concern to the operators of furnaces. The stacks built of mica schist continued to smelt iron ore until about 1836, when, according to F. H. Norton, the first firebrick were produced1, at Queens Run, Pa. Other writers speak of brick having been molded and burned in Massachusetts about the year 1834. In 1841, Andrew Russell began to produce medium refractory plastic clay brick near East Liverpool, Ohio, that were used for lining blast furnaces1. The well-known Kentucky clay-producing district was not opened up until the year 1871, but since then it has produced a large percentage of the linings for iron blast furnaces. While some strides have been made by the refractories industry during the 100 years that have passed since the first firebrick were produced, it has been only during the last two decades that any real progress has been made towards bettering the product, even though the method of production had improved. Perhaps the fault lies with the user of the brick rather than with the producer, for not sooner demanding a supe-rior product. During the past 15 years the tonnage produced per lining has increased from 500,000 gross tons to 1,000,000 gross tons, and now some furnaces are producing 1,600,000 gross tons and better on a single lining. It is true that enlarged capacity of furnaces and improved practice have accounted for some of this increase in tonnage, nevertheless better quality in firebrick must be given credit for its share. However, we are not yet ready to say that we have reached a maximum life of furnace lining. We believe that a better product can be produced and that the refractories industries of America will, through their extensive research depart-

Jan 1, 1937

By W. N. Poundstone, P. C. Thakur

Introduction Horizontal drilling in coal mines is a relatively new technology. The earliest recorded drilling in the United States was done in 1958 at the Humphrey mine of Consolidation Coal Co. for degasification of coal seams. Spindler and Poundstone experimented with vertical and horizontal holes for several years. They concluded in 1960 that horizontal drilling in advance of underground mining appeared to offer the most promising prospect (for degasification) but effective and extensive application would be dependent upon the ability to drill long holes, possibly 300 to 600 m, with reasonably precise directional control and within practical cost limits (Spindler and Poundstone, 1960). Mining Research Division of Conoco Inc., the parent company of Consolidation Coal Co., began a research program in the early 1970s to achieve the above objective. The technology needed to drill nearly 300 m in advance of working faces was developed by 1975 and experiments on advance degasification with such deep holes began in 1976. Preliminary results of this research have already been published (Thakur and Davis, 1977). To date nearly 4.5 km of horizontal holes have been drilled for advance degasification and earlier results were reconfirmed. In summary, these are: • The greatest impact of these boreholes was felt in the face area where methane concentrations were reduced to nearly 0.3% in course of two to three months from original values of nearly 0.95%. • The methane concentration in the section return reduced to 50% of its original value immediately after the boreholes were completed, indicating a capture ratio of 50%. • The total methane emission in the section (rib and face emission plus the borehole production) did not increase but rather gradually declined with time. • Initial production from 300 m deep boreholes in the Pittsburgh seam varied from 3 m3/min to 6 m3/min but then slowly declined as workings advanced inby of the drill site (well head) exposing a larger surface area parallel to the borehole. Encouraged by these results, it was decided to design a horizontal drilling system that would be mobile and compatible with other face equipment. A mobile horizontal drill can be divided into three subsystems: the drill rig, the drill bit guidance system, and borehole surveying instruments. The drill rig provides the thrust and torque necessary to drill 75- to 100-mm diam holes up to 600 m deep and contains the mud circulation and gas cuttings separation systems. The drill bit guidance system guides the bit up, down, left, or right as desired. Borehole surveying instruments measure the pitch, roll, and azimuth of the borehole assembly. Additionally, it also indicates the thickness of coal between the borehole and the roof or floor of the coal seam. Thus, it becomes a powerful tool for locating the presence of faults, clay veins, sand channels, and the thickness of coal seam in advance of mining. In recent years, many other potential uses of horizontal boreholes have come to light, such as in situ gasification, longwall blasting, improved auger mining, and oil and gas production from shallow deposits. The purpose of this paper is to describe the hardware and procedure for drilling deep horizontal holes. The Drilling Rig [Figures 1 and 2] show the two components of the mobile drilling rig: the drill unit and the auxiliary unit. The equipment (except for the chassis) was designed by Conoco Inc. and fabricated by J. H. Fletcher and Co. of Huntington, WV. The drill unit. It is mounted on a four-wheel drive chassis driven by two Staffa hydraulic motors with chains. The tires are 369 X 457 mm in size and provide a ground clearance of 305 mm. The prime mover is a 30-kw explosion-proof electric motor which is used only for tramming. Once the unit is Crammed to the drill site, electric power is disconnected and hydraulic power from the auxiliary unit is turned on. Four floor jacks are used to level the machine and raise the drill head to the desired level. Two 5-t telescopic hydraulic props, one on each side, anchor the drill unit to the roof. The drill unit houses the feed carriage, the drilling console, 300 m of 3-m-long NQ, drill rods, and the electric cable reel for instruments. The feed carriage is mounted more or less centrally, has a feed of 3.3 m, and can swing laterally by ± 17°. It can also sump forward by 1.2 m. The drill head has a "through" chuck such that drill pipes can be fed from the side or back end. General specifications of the feed carriage are: [ ] The auxiliary unit. The chassis for the auxiliary unit is identical to the drill unit but the prime movers are two 30-kW explosion proof electric motors. It is equipped with a methane detector- activated switch so that power will be cut off at a preset methane concentration in the air. No anchoring props are needed for this unit. The auxiliary unit houses the hydraulic power pack, the water (mud) circulating pump, control boxes for electric motors, a trailing cable spool, and a steel tank which serves for water storage and closed-loop separation of drill cuttings and gas.

Jan 1, 1981

By H Haas

H. HAAS, San Francisco, Cal. (communication to the Secretary?). -Fig. 1 plainly shows that the comparison of the steam-turbine and Diesel-engine plants was made on a basis of 6,000 kw. continuous operating load. The tabulation of costs for an 8,000-kw. load is merely done to show the relation of increased output on' the unit power costs. Both plants would sacrifice their reserve capacity, which is to insure continuous operation, if operated to generate 8,000 kw. continuously; unless Mr. Hawkins advocates the operation of one of the turbines at 33.33 per cent. overload, retaining the other as a standby, which, besides overtaxing the turbine, results in a great loss of efficiency. It would he well for Mr. Hawkins to qualify certain of his statements. Thus, under the caption "Diesel Engines, Selection of Units," he says that "two of the largest Diesel-engine builders take the position that, in the present state of the art, they would not attempt to put out units over 1,000 kw.;" he should qualify it by saving that "two of the largest American Diesel-engine builders take the position that, in the present state of the art in the United States, they would not attempt to put out units over 1,000 kw." The reason that American manufacturers restrict themselves at present to units of that size is to be found not so much in a lack of experience in building large units as in a lack of a sufficient, demand for them in the United States to justify the heavy capital outlay connected with the development of such engines. There are relatively few localities in the United States where fuel prices are as high as they are in the Southwest, and regions of high fuel prices are sparsely settled and have a very limited demand for power. Where low fuel prices obtain, steam turbines are active competitors of Diesel engines for large power plants, particularly when the station load factor is low. As most of the American manufacturers of Diesel engines work under license agreements with European manufacturers, which limit their market to the United States and its possessions and Canada, a further limitation is imposed upon them, leaving to European firms practically the entire world as a market.

Jan 5, 1917

By J. C. Boswell, J. D. Crawford

IN addition to its base-metal and coal mining operations, the United States Smelting Refining and Mining Company has, for the past quarter century, been one of the few large American mining companies interested in dredging. Its activities in this field are confined to gold, and to Alaska, but it is the largest operator in that territory, with twelve huge dredges available to work during the summer on the frozen ancient beach sands at Nome and the gravels of Fairbanks. These operations will be described separately.

Jan 1, 1948

By H. Kenworthy, M. M. Fine

The progress made to date in the mineral dressing of complex Arkansas titanium ores is reported in this paper. Concentrates of rutile, a dioxide of titanium, were produced by treating a submarginal ore from the Magnet Cove Rutile Co., Inc., Magnet, Ark. The rutile recovery at present is 45 to 50 pct of the total TiO2 with the possibility of increased recovery with additional research. The work reported herein is part of a general study which will later include results of investigation of other titanium ore bodies in the Magnet, Ark., area. The fragile character of the rutile minerals, the softness of the gangue, the occurrence of pyrite and leucoxene, and the considerable proportion of extremely small size rutile in the presence of montmorillonite- and illite- type clays in the Magnet Cove open-pit mine are the important factors in the mineral dressing of this submarginal rutile ore.

Jan 1, 1949

By R. H. Jacoby, V. J. Berry

When dry gas is injected into a reservoir containing a volatile crude oil, a significant amount of the reservoir liquid phase may become vaporized. The resultant rich gas phase, when subsequently produced, con-tributes to tank oil production. This contribution assumes greater importance, the more volatile the oil in-olved. Oil recovery may be sub-stantially greater than that predicted by conventional frontal-drive methods, which do not consider the vaporization equilibrium between the reservoir oil phase and the injected gas. A calculation method has been (developed to account for vaporiza-. tion of the reservoir liquid phase during gas-injectiorz operations, and for the tank oil production which results from this factor. Recovery performance calculations are presented for a reservoir containing a highly volatile oil. Tank oil recovery is calculated to be about twice that predicted by the use of the conven-rional frontal-drive equations. In contrastto usual pressure maintenance performance results, in which the gas-oil ratio rises at an increasing rate after gas breakthrough, the pre-dicated gas-oil ratio rises rapidly to about 12,000 scf/bhl and then rises much less rapidly. During gas inje-tion, most of the reservoir liquid phase contacted is evaporated by the dry injection gar. The gas-oil ratio during this period is dependent upon reservoir pressure. The higher the operating pressure, the lower the gas-oil ratio. The predicted behavior i., in accordance with laboratory PVT tests made to .simulate the vaporization behavior. In addition to recovery performance predictions, results of the calculation procedure include complete wellstrearn composition data of value in the design of gasoline plant facilities often used in con-rrction with gas-injection operations. INTRODUCTION In the cycling of gas-condensate reservoirs, dry gas is injected to maintain reservoir pressure during wet gas production and to thereby eliminate or reduce ultimate loss of liquids due to retrograde condensation within the reservoir. Gas injected into crude oil reservoirs has a dual function. It displaces oil to the producing wells and at the same time serves to partially or fully maintain reservoir pressure. Oil shrinkage which would occur upon pressure reduction is thereby minimized or eliminated. Accepted calculation methods are available'= for predicting recovery performance of either gas-condensate reservoirs or crude oil reservoirs which are being subjected to gas injection. In gas-condensate reservoirs, any retrograde liquid formed does not flow, and it is necessary to account only for the vaporization equilibrium between this liquid and the injected gas. Conversely, in normal crude oil reservoirs, both the oil and gas phases flow, but it has not been considered necessary to account for any vaporization of the reservoir liquid which might occur upon contact with the dry injection gas. Recently, high shrinkage reservoir fluids known as "volatile oils" have been found in increasing amounts. These oils are characterized by tank oil gravities above 4.5" API, solution gas-oil ratios above 1,000 scf/bbl, and reservoir volume factors above two. Special techniques have been devised for predicting depletion performance of reservoirs containing such oils.74.5.1; One of the characteristics of reservoirs producing volatile oils is that the reservoir gas phase carries a significant amount of oil which is recoverable as stock-tank liquid. This unusual vaporization be-havior implies that an appreciable amount of reservoir liquid would be vaporized upon contact of the oil with dry injection gas. In a gas-injection operation, tank oil recovery would he obtained not only through frontal displacement of the reservoir liquid by the injected gas, but also through production of the rich gas phase. This means that not only are improved methods needed to predict recovery of such oils from reservoirs undergoing gas injection, but it would also be expected that high oil recoveries might be obtained by such operations. When relatively dry gas is injected in to a volatile oil reservoir, phase equilibrium between the injected gas and the reservoir oil will tend to bc established. Initially the most volatile components, such as propane, the butanes and the pentanes, will account for most of the material transferred from the oil phase to the gas phase. As the partially stripped oil phase is contacted with additional dry injection gas, the heavier intermediate components, such as the hexanes, the heptanes and the octanes, will gradually transfer to the gas phase in increasing amounts. This is because the supply of lighter components in the oil phase dwindles due to the stripping action of the injected gas. This stripping action will usually continue to be effective down

By V. T. BERNER

THIS apparatus was designed primarily to meet the demand for a quick, efficient stopping to seal off the burning area temporarily during a mine fire, but it can be used in any circumstance where an immediate brattice is required for ventilation control. In using the old style brattice, mine-rescue workers have found it difficult, in smoke-laden drifts and stopes, to erect an effective stopping with wooden frame and canvas. Stulls must first be cut to the proper length, the canvas tacked in place, and the numerous irregularities of the walls and back must be caulked. This operation requires the employment of axes, saws, and hammers, which cannot easily and safely be handled in dense smoke. The fire fighters have often been forced to abandon their brattice, unfinished, because of the rapid approach of the fire, or because of the exhausted sup- ply of oxygen in their breathing apparatus. It is neces-

Jan 1, 1930

By F. Lynwood Garrison

Except in the old Catalan forge, or its modifications, attempts to make iron and steel directly from ore in a practical and economical manner have failed so frequently and completely that such schemes are looked upon with justifiable distrust. Without exception, all have failed from one cause or another, although in some instances every indication of a practical success was manifest in the beginning. It is, therefore, necessary to carefully examine and consider every detail affecting the process, or more properly, furnace, under consideration. This I have done to the best of my ability during a long visit to Russia last summer, and after satisfactorily observing the practical success of the furnace in the iron works of Count Stroganoff at Dobriansky in the Government of Perm, I decided to investigate as completely as possible the history of similar furnaces in Finland and Russia. These data, sifted and verified with the greatest possible care, form the substance of the present paper.* An illustration on page 321 of Percy's Iron and Steel shows the old type of Osmundssmide or harkugnar, which has been in use in Northern Europe since pagan times. Fig. 1 shows a furnace of this kind. It should, perhaps, more properly be called a high-bloomary furnace or forge, the Swedish word hark meaning bloom or loupe. It was with this type of furnace that Mr. Husgafvel began his experiments at Porsaskoski in 1875. Attempts to obtain better results with larger furnaces of this type were failures, as every bloom or loupe obtained necessitated blowing out the furnace with a consequent large waste of fuel. A larger furnace of course increased this waste with no corresponding advantage. A movable hearth of threeeighth inch iron, lined with a mixture of clay, quartz and lime, was next tried, but in consequence of the frequent repairs of this lining,

Jan 1, 1888

By Stanly A. Easton

SEVEN years ago there was installed in the hospital of the Bunker Hill & Sullivan Mining & Concentrating Co. at Kellogg, Idaho, an ultra-violet ray quartz lamp, the standard equipment which is found everywhere in the offices of physicians and among usual hospital equipment. The use of this lamp was con- fined largely to treatment of pathological cases, still treatment of under-nourished children, run-down anemic people, both men and women, and, as a general tonic, was part of the routine hospital procedure. At the latitude of the Ceur d'Alene district and especially because of the position of the towns in deep canyons, with much overcast and cloudy weather, sunshine is not plentiful at any time of the year; for many of the winter months there is scarcely any. Underground workers, particularly during the winter, have little sun- shine; it is not unusual to have none at all for weeks at a time. Treatment by the ultra-violet ray lamp in the hospital has resulted in many extraordinary benefits but the use of the lamp is expensive and limited. Some weeks ago attention was directed to the automatic solarium equipment of the Burdick Corporation. The doctors strongly recommended the increased use of the ultra-violet lamp for its curative powers and tonic effects, urging that it be made accessible to all employees. Real interest was . . also displayed by employees with the possibility of securing ultra-violet ray treatment for themselves and families under better conditions than it was possible to have by the limited use of the lamp at the hospital. This resulted in the installation of the so-called sun room or automatic solarium as an adjunct to the mine change-house. An annex was built to the change-house, with dressing rooms for women, children and men from other departments, and the outfit put into use on Sept. 5, 1929. The installation consists of an escalator, or

Jan 1, 1929