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By ABBOT A. HANKS

WHEN gold was discovered in California, and San Francisco grew almost over night from a handful of people to many thousands, one of the first difficulties experienced was the lack of money. Gold dust in considerable quantities was rushed into the city from the various mining camps but there was no money. Purchases were paid for by weighing out dust in hand scales. We can appreciate' the difficulty of paying for a drink or buying a postage stamp under these conditions. All this gold was in the form of dust from placer workings and the first metallurgists were the assayers' who melted and refined this gold, casting it into bars which were weighed, assayed, stamped with fineness; value, and the name of the assayer. Many .of these plants were of considerable size, handling shipments that were accumulated by banks and express companies throughout the "Diggings" and sent to San Francisco to be shipped by water to the eastern states. Several

Jan 1, 1931

By F. J. Cuddeback

For low-head pumping of small quantities of water, the water jet, or hydraulic educter, has been used to advantage by Eagle-Picher Mining and Smelting Co. in the Tri-State district. Water-jet pumps are used for draining sumps and pockets up to 15 ft. in depth. They have been used very successfully when only moderate amounts of water are encountered in taking up bottom. A small, easily handled unit is desirable in this work, especially while opening and deepening a new stope. Small air pumps are convenient but can be used only on the day shift, when air is available. Obviously, a jet pump of smaller capacity but operating 24 hr. prevents lost time at the start of each shift. No tests have been made on their power efficiency, but admittedly it is low. However, for certain kinds of work this is offset by their handiness, low initial cost, low upkeep, and reliability. They will handle slime and sand without ill effect, and will continue to pump indefinitely on air. This foolproof 24-hr. performance has led to their continued use at some places even after electric pumps with better power efficiency could have been installed. The success of jet pumps depends largely upon a cheap source of high-pressure water. Owing to mine depths in the Tri-State district, pump pressures range from 100 to 150 Ib. per sq. in. In many mines it is common practice to handle the normal inflow water with triplex pumps ranging in size from 3 to 8 in. The pumps operate 24 hr. per day, and, in order to handle emergency conditions, are speeded slightly faster than necessary to pump the normal inflow. The sump level is governed by controlling the by-pass water with a butterfly valve and float. This method is somewhat wasteful of power, but permits the pumps to operate with a minimum of attention. Such an installation is visited once a day to check lubrication. Hence, if some of this water, normally by-passed to the main sump, were used to operate a jet pump, the power cost could be considered low regardless of efficiency. Figs. I and 2 show two water jets that have done satisfactory work. The one in Fig. 2, made up entirely of pipe fittings, may be of interest partially because of its novelty, but does better work than its appearance indicates. The pipe fittings for this jet as shown cost $2.20. Some improvement in its design may be made by cutting out the 135 by 1¼-in. reducer to a smoother taper as shown by dotted lines. A 3-in. suction pipe is sometimes used in order that the discharge may be as straight as possible. A 2-in. discharge line has been used frequently, but 3-in. pipe is used where several hundred feet of discharge is required.

Jan 1, 1946

By Raymond D. Sloan

Dropping from third position among the oil-producing states of the nation in 1942, Oklahoma ranked fourth in 1943 with a total output of 121,431,ooo bbl., a decline of 11.9 per cent from the previous year's total of 137,792,000 bbl. Production ranged from a maximum of 346,900 bbl. daily in February to a low of 322,800 bbl. daily in October, and at the close of the year was averaging 330,000 bbl. daily from 52,096 wells, or an average of 6.3 bbl. per well. The state's well, average at the close of 1942 amounted to 6.7 bbl. At the turn of the year, it appeared reasonable to assume that Oklahoma's producing rate would continue its downward trend during 1944 unless reversed by greater than normal discoveries. To Jan. I, 1944, Oklahoma has produced 5,188,466,-ooo bbl. of crude oil. Development and Exploration A total of 1287 wells was drilled in 1943, representing an increase of 77 wells, or 6.4 per cent over the preceding year's total of 1210. Of the wells completed, 587 (45.6 per cent) were oil wells with an average initial production of 319 bbl.; 127 (9.9 per cent) were gas wells with an average initial of 8,639,000 cu. ft.; and 573 (44.5 per cent) were dry. A total of 333 wildcats was drilled (25.9 per cent of all wells), an increase of 13 (4.1 per cent) over the 1942 total of 320. Of the*wildcats drilled, 46 (13.8 per cent) were oil wells with an average initial production of 235 bbl.; 27 (8.1 per cent) were gas wells with an average initial of 8,249,-ooo cu. ft.; and 260 (78.1 per cent) were recorded as failures. Reconditioning of wells throughout the state led to a total recompletion of 230 wells. Of these, 131 were oil wells with a combined initial production of 8360 bbl., 31 were gas wells with a total initial of 211,950,000 cu. ft., and 68 were abandoned. The 46 successful wildcats opened 33 new producing areas, one of which produced from three separate horizons, and led to the development of production in new horizons in 11 old pools. While none of the 1943 discoveries have as yet developed into what might be termed major pools, the West Moore pool, in Cleveland County, and the West Edmond pool, in Oklahoma County, are the two outstanding new areas opened to production. The West Moore pool, sec. 29, 10 N., 3 W., discovered in December 1943, was completed for an initial production of 248 bbl. of oil in 3 hr. through small tubing chokes in the second Wilcox sand from 8787 to 8800 ft. One well was drilling in this area at the close of the year. The West Edmond pool, an April discovery in sec. 32, 14 N 4 W., is producing from the Hunton lime at a depth of approximately 6950 ft., the world's deepest Hunton lime pool. To the end of the year, 15 oil wells had been completed, with no gas wells and no failures. Accumulated production to Jan. I, 1944, amounted to 474,300 bbl. of 41" gravity oil. There were 29 active operations in the field at the end of the year. The West Edmond and West Moore pool discoveries established the first commercial production west of the Granite Ridge,

Jan 1, 1944

By Raymond D. Sloan

Dropping from third position among the oil-producing states of the nation in 1942, Oklahoma ranked fourth in 1943 with a total output of 121,431,ooo bbl., a decline of 11.9 per cent from the previous year's total of 137,792,000 bbl. Production ranged from a maximum of 346,900 bbl. daily in February to a low of 322,800 bbl. daily in October, and at the close of the year was averaging 330,000 bbl. daily from 52,096 wells, or an average of 6.3 bbl. per well. The state's well, average at the close of 1942 amounted to 6.7 bbl. At the turn of the year, it appeared reasonable to assume that Oklahoma's producing rate would continue its downward trend during 1944 unless reversed by greater than normal discoveries. To Jan. I, 1944, Oklahoma has produced 5,188,466,-ooo bbl. of crude oil. Development and Exploration A total of 1287 wells was drilled in 1943, representing an increase of 77 wells, or 6.4 per cent over the preceding year's total of 1210. Of the wells completed, 587 (45.6 per cent) were oil wells with an average initial production of 319 bbl.; 127 (9.9 per cent) were gas wells with an average initial of 8,639,000 cu. ft.; and 573 (44.5 per cent) were dry. A total of 333 wildcats was drilled (25.9 per cent of all wells), an increase of 13 (4.1 per cent) over the 1942 total of 320. Of the*wildcats drilled, 46 (13.8 per cent) were oil wells with an average initial production of 235 bbl.; 27 (8.1 per cent) were gas wells with an average initial of 8,249,-ooo cu. ft.; and 260 (78.1 per cent) were recorded as failures. Reconditioning of wells throughout the state led to a total recompletion of 230 wells. Of these, 131 were oil wells with a combined initial production of 8360 bbl., 31 were gas wells with a total initial of 211,950,000 cu. ft., and 68 were abandoned. The 46 successful wildcats opened 33 new producing areas, one of which produced from three separate horizons, and led to the development of production in new horizons in 11 old pools. While none of the 1943 discoveries have as yet developed into what might be termed major pools, the West Moore pool, in Cleveland County, and the West Edmond pool, in Oklahoma County, are the two outstanding new areas opened to production. The West Moore pool, sec. 29, 10 N., 3 W., discovered in December 1943, was completed for an initial production of 248 bbl. of oil in 3 hr. through small tubing chokes in the second Wilcox sand from 8787 to 8800 ft. One well was drilling in this area at the close of the year. The West Edmond pool, an April discovery in sec. 32, 14 N 4 W., is producing from the Hunton lime at a depth of approximately 6950 ft., the world's deepest Hunton lime pool. To the end of the year, 15 oil wells had been completed, with no gas wells and no failures. Accumulated production to Jan. I, 1944, amounted to 474,300 bbl. of 41" gravity oil. There were 29 active operations in the field at the end of the year. The West Edmond and West Moore pool discoveries established the first commercial production west of the Granite Ridge,

Jan 1, 1944

By H. M. Otte

Certain choices for the shear elements of the inhomogeneous distortion in the phenomenological theory of martensite formation are examined for their agreement with crystallographic and X-ray data of iron alloys. The assumption that the shear elements must represent slip or twinning systems characteristic of bcc metals is found to covey all observations, even when a small uniform dilatation is taken into consideration. In bct martensite, (011) becomes a possible twinning or faulting plane, in addition to {112), and qualitatively similar X-ray line broadening is to be expected from both. The basic concept inherent in the current theoriesl-4 of the formation of martensite is that the interface between the parent (austenitic) and product (martensitic) phase is an invariant strain plane (i.e., one that is undistorted and unrotated). Experimental evidence that the interface is of such a nature is available in certain transformations2'5'6 but for the transformation in iron alloys direct observation has not proved enlightening. Internal strains resulting from the formation of the small martensite platelets within the parent austenite matrix7 make it difficult to produce the desired evidence. Indirect evidence, however, such as the continuity of scratches in passing from untrans-formed to a transformed region, strongly indicates that the habit plane in iron alloys is an invariant strain interface. The scatter in habit planes in a given specimen8 would suggest that internal stresses have a slight but definite influence. On the other hand, composition changes which affect the lattice parameter can alter the habit plane appreciably, and by an amount greater than the scatter.' The success of the theories depends on the choice made for the "inhomogeneous distortion" or "complementary shear'' in the analysis and also on the choice for the parameter 6 representing a small uniform dilatation. In the approach developed by Wechsler, Lieberman, and Read'," it is implicitly assumed that 6 is unity. In the case of iron alloys, all observations cannot be explained without varying either the inhomogeneous distortion or 6 . Bowles and Mackenzie3 considered only the effect of varying d. They found it difficult to reconcile the wide scatter of habit planes with the theory and were forced to the conclusion that it may also be necessary to consider variations or different choices of the inhomogeneous distortion. Wechsler and Read" considered a limited number of possible choices for the inhomogeneous distortion, but no variation in 6, though this could easily have been introduced if so desired. It is the purpose of the

Jan 1, 1961

By Wayne L. Worrell

Thermodynamic data for the stable carbides and oxides of chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten have been critically eualuuted and are used to determine the stable condensed phases at 1 atm total pressure in each metal-carbon-oxygen system. Pourbaix-Ellingham diagrams have been constructed and are used to estimate the minimum temperatures neces.see)*y to oblain these metals by corbolhermic redlrction under reduced pressures. USING recently reported data for the carbides and oxides of chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten, the stable phases in the Group VI metal-carbon-oxygen systems at specific temperatures and pressures can be determined. The thermodynamically stable regions in each metal-carbon-oxygen system can be completely pictured using a Pourbaix-Ellingham diagram in which the two coordinates are oxygen potential (-RT In Po2) and temperature. Worrell and chipman' have described and constructed such diagrams for the metal-carbon-oxygen systems of vanadium, columbium, and tantalum. Downing2 has used similar diagrams to provide a description of the reactions in submerged arc furnaces. One of the examples which he cited was the Cr-C-O system; however, an improved diagram is presented in this paper using recently obtained data for the carbides of chromium. Although some of the oxides and carbides of the Group VI metals exist over slight ranges of composition,3 all solid phases are represented as stoi-chiometric compounds in the subsequent diagrams. Any error introduced into the calculated equilibria by neglecting the compositional variation of these phases is less than the uncertainty in the thermodynamic data. In a Pourbaix-Ellingham diagram for a three-component system, the phase rule requires that at equilibrium four condensed phases specify a point, three condensed phases determine a line, and two condensed phases define an area. To obtain a well-defined area at high oxygen potentials and teniperatures, the initial carbon to oxygen mole ratio is specified to be more than sufficient to reduce the oxide but not enough to convert all the metal to carbide. Thus, the lowest regions in the subse- quent Pourbaix-Ellingham diagrams represent areas in which the metal and its carbide are the stable condensed phases. Cr-C-O SYSTEM A) Thermodynamic Data. To simplify the subsequent calculations, all thermodynamic data are presented in the form of linear Gibbs-energy-of-formation* equations which were derived for the temperature range 505° to 2000°K and are reasonably accurate over the entire temperature ranges of the diagrams. The thermodynamic data for the compounds occurring in the Cr-C-O system are summarized in Table I. Several volatile chromium oxides have been reported,4 but their influence is negligible in the Cr-C-O system. Thermodynamic data for CO and CO2 were taken from the compilation of Coughlin.5 The only solid chromium oxide sufficiently stable to exist below 1800°K in the Cr-C-O system is Cr2Os.11 The Gibbs-energy-of-formation equation for Cr2O3 was obtained by revising the data tabulated in Coughlin,5 using the heat of formation of ah' and the high-temperature thermal data for chromium.7 In 1953 Richardson8 re-evaluated the original work of Kelley and coworkers,9 who measured the thermodynamic properties of the chromium carbides. However, the high-temperature equilibrium results of Boericke9 yield values for ?G°f of Cr2O3 which are 2 kcal more positive than the accepted data. His results for the chromium carbides are based on the same questionable equilibria. Gleiser10 recently determined the Gibbs energy of formation of Cr3C2 and the equation in Table I was calculated from her data and the thermal data of Kelley and coworkers.9 Thermodynamic data for the Cr7C3 and Cr23C6 carbides were obtained by combining the Cr3C2 data

Jan 1, 1965

By P. A. E. Armstrong

For hardening, the steel should be heated just above the critical temperature, as a properly forged steel quenched from this heat has some toughness, with maximum hardness and density. The quenching bath should be kept at approximately a constant temperature. In drawing or tempering, longer time periods at lower temperatures are better than the shorter periods at higher temperatures. A recent questionnaire brought out the following facts: The double-arc, double-taper bit and cross bit give the best service; resharpening of the drill steels most frequently was caused by wear of gage; chipping of bit was, with one exception, the second cause; breakage of shank was with one exception, the third cause; upsetting of bit, upsetting of shank, and breakage of body were the fourth cause. The direct cause of the necessity of resharpening given was poor heat treatment first, and faulty steel and severe rock conditions second. Rock-drill Steel By N. B. Hoffman Much of the drill steel produced in America is manufactured into hollow rods. After all forging has been finished the entire bar should be thoroughly annealed and heat trcated before the point is hardened and tempered, at least where the drill has heavy duty, such as working in deep holes and hard rock. A large number of tools of like character and doing work requiring similar properties are now being made of alloy steels; for instance a steel with a carbon content of 0.75 to 0.85 per cent., manganese 0.25 to 0.35, phosphorus under 0.020, sulfur under 0.030 and vanadium 0.18 to 0.23 has proved very satisfactory for chisels. A steel of this type properly manufactured will be far superior to the ordinary carbon steels, while at the same time is one whose price range should not prove prohibitive. Much of the cutting efficiency of a drill depends on proper heat treatment. This vanadium steel has a far greater safe hardening and forging range than ordinary carbon steels, making it more nearly foolproof. It will harden nicely at 1400" I?. but will also harden well and satisfactorily at 1550" F. retaining its quality of hardness and toughness in either case. Drill Steel from Hollow Ingots BY P. A. E. ARmstrong Hollow drill steel is made from a drilled billet with a sand-filled core or the drilled, pierced, or the drilled and pierced billet, not sand-filled, is rolled down over a projectile or ball much the same as in ordinary pipe manufacture. The first is the method generally used in this country; the second is used largely in Sweden. Swedish hollow drill steel has a

Jan 1, 1922

By O. C. Wheeler

In order that the series of reports on oil and gas in Colombia may be complete, the report for the year 1941, which was not available for Volume 160 of the TRANSACTIONS, is given here. The report for 1945 begins on page 4o6.

Jan 1, 1946

By P. R. Sahm, T. V. Pruss

Mixtures of fine GaSb and Gds as well as preal-loyed GaSbl,As, powders were hot-pressed at 690°C and 25,000 psi. Dense alloys with compositional gradients of less than 5 pct were obtained from mixtures containing about 20 mol pct GaAs. For x < 0.2, there were increasing compositional gradients, and for x > 0.2 a GaAs-rich second phase appeared in the microstructure. Densification as well as alloying wlechanisms were enhanced by dissociation and, possibly, oxidation reactions of the powders. Densification of coarse prealloyed material, however, primarily depended on plastic flow phenomena and required temperatures just below solidus and pressures of 50,000 psi Thermal and electrical properties were measured. Although in no case was the figure of merit of melt growth materials approached closer than to within 25 pct, the better overall thermoelectric properties were found in coarse-grained, prealloyed materzals which had been compacted to near theoretical density and where grain regrowth had been induced. Similar results are believed to hold in other binary 111-V compound systems if processed under similar conditions. The densification of unalloyed GaSb powders during pressure sintering (= hot pressing) was shown to depend strongly on powder particle size.&apos; Fine powders displayed a "liquid skin effect" that enhanced compaction through the presence of liquid gallium, whereas coarse powders compacted predominantly by plastic flow. The liquid skin effect, in particular, appeared attractive for alloying GaSb with other, higher-melting, III-V compounds, and to densify these in a one-step operation. This is of special interest in the case of III-V compound alloys as the conventional techniques of melt growth or long-time annealing of powders2 is very time-consuming, especially in cases where a large separation of liquidus and solidus can be expected, such as in GaSbl alloys.2 It was felt that experimentation with this system, a particularly unfavorable example, would allow us to extrapolate to several other, more favorable, cases. Uses of Ill-V alloys are most evident in thermoelectric energy conversion devices.&apos; For this reason certain thermal and electrical properties were measured and compared to those of melt-grown material and to hot-pressed prealloyed powders. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The pressure-sintering apparatus has been previously described.&apos; Using this equipment, both powder mixtures of GaSb with GaAs and prealloyed GaSbl-,As, powders were hot-pressed. The mixtures were pre- pared from cast GaSb and melt-grown GaAs. The prealloyed material was obtained from stoichiometric melts, initially heated to 1200°C in an evacuated quartz ampoule, and then annealed in the solidus-liquidus interval. A typical annealing cycle consisted of a heating to 850°C (1 hr), extended successive annealing at 750°C (65 hr), and slow stepwise cooling (25 hr) to below solidus. The GaSb, GaAs, and GaSbl-,As, materials were ground in a vibrational mill to particle sizes below 500 . A jet mill reduced these further where necessary. Fine powders were analyzed by Coulter counting for their size distribution. Average sizes by volume were calculated from the data. Mixing of the powders, where necessary, was carried out through rapid vibrational motion. The hot-pressing operation consisted of a degassing period of 15 hr, in most cases at 690°C, followed by several hours of compression, normally 25,000 psi at 690°C for powder mixtures and 50,000 psi at 710°C for prealloyed powders. The chemical compositions were confirmed by X-ray fluorescence analysis. To estimate the degree of solid solution achieved, lattice parameters were determined and interpreted according to Vegard&apos;s rule. In addition, optical microscopy helped to correlate the relative amounts of the phases present as well as the degree of porosity to the measured density. To reveal grain boundaries, polished surfaces were etched4 with H 2 O:H 2 O:HCl = 2:l:l. In several cases microscopic concentration gradients were monitored by electron-probe analysis-. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Alloying and Densification of GaSn-GaAs Powder Mixtures. After preliminary experiments showed that no appreciable alloying took place in mixtures of coarse GaSb (22.5 p) and fine GaAs (2.5 p) powders, hot pressing of mixtures was confined to fine powders only (3.1 and 2.4 p, respectively). Alloying and densification apparently occurred simultaneously with a grain regrowth mechanism which depended on the presence of a liquid phase.&apos; The liquid phase was provided by the dissociation of GasbS particles into liquid gallium and antimony above 555°C. This not only enhanced grain regrowth and densification, as in unalloyed GaSb,&apos; but took on additional importance here for the alloying process. Alloying was speeded up by the resulting liquid-solid interaction as compared to the very slow solid-state diffusion process normally expected at these temperatures.&apos; The results obtained with a series of powder mixtures have been compiled in Table I. It is seen that for mixtures with less than 20 mol pct GaAs, x < 0.2, the compositional ranges increased and for x > 0.2 a GaAs-rich phase and free antimony appeared in the microstructure in sizable amounts.

Jan 1, 1968

By Wilson Blake

Rock deformation and failure taking place around underground openings is usually both accompanied and preceded by the phenomena of rock noise or microseismic activity. These small-scale releases of seismic and acoustic energy can be detected with special geophysical monitoring equipment. Use of this equipment allows one to look inside a rock mass to determine how an opening is behaving under the applied loading system. Microseismic equipment and monitoring techniques are briefly reviewed, and use of the microseismic method as an engineering tool in monitoring rock structure stability is illustrated by case histories. Examples cited range from evaluating roof stability using single-channel portable equipment, to rock burst monitoring using sophisticated computer controlled, multichannel monitoring systems.

Jan 1, 1983

By Robert Mehl

THE system cadmium-mercury has attracted much attention, chiefly because of its importance in the study of electrochemical standard cells. The constitutional diagram, as it is accepted today, is essentially that FIG. 1.-BIJL&apos;S DIAGRAM FOR CADMIUM-MERCURY ALLOYS. developed by Bijl1 (Fig. 1), though there has been a great amount of work done on the system by other workers.2 A year ago the senior author published a paper on the crystal structure of the system, in which were described determinations of crystal structure

Jan 1, 1929

By L. A. Roe, John Jan

Iodine is a soft, lustrous, grayish-black nonmetallic element with a density of 4.9. It is the least active of the four members of the halogen family. The other members are, in order of increasing activity, bromine, chlorine, and fluorine. Iodine is a solid at ordinary temperatures, while bromine is a liquid and chlorine and fluorine are gases. Iodine melts at 113°C and volatilizes at 184.4°C to a blue-violet gas with an irritating odor. It occurs in nature only as iodates and iodides or other combined forms. It was discovered by Bernard Courtois in France in 1811, who noticed its presence as an unknown substance in crude soda ash obtained from burning seaweed. Gay-Lussac recognized it as a new element and named it iode, from the Greek word "ioeides or iodes" for violet color (MacMillan, 1970). The world production is not known with any great certainty, but it is probably between 25 and 35 million lb per year, of which about 30% is consumed in the United States. Geology and Mineralogy Iodine compounds occur as a minor constituent as a mineral in the Chilean nitrate deposits and in solution in brines and seawater. According to the US Geological Survey, it is the 47th most abundant element in the earth&apos;s crust. The minerals lautarite, Ca (I03)3 (calcium iodate), and dietzeite, Cat (103)2 (CrO4), (calcium iodate-chromate) are found in Chilean nitrate deposits which are located in Antofagasta and Tarapaca provinces on the eastern slope of the coast range in a desert area. Various brines contain iodine compounds. Seawater contains about 0.05 ppm of iodine and some seaweeds will extract and accumulate it up to 0.45% on a dry basis. Some coals in West Germany also contain iodine compounds. The known and potential sources of iodine reported in 1968 are given in Table 1. Table 2 lists estimated world iodine reserves. Iodine has been recovered from brines in Java, Indonesia, France, England, and the USSR. Iodine has also been recovered from seaweed in Ireland, Scotland, France, Japan, Norway, and the USSR. The indicated reserves and future resources of iodine are large but have never been adequately measured. Analysis Iodine as the free element can be detected by the characteristic blue color it gives to a starch solution. Quantitatively it is determined as the free element by titration with standard thiosulfate solutions using starch as an indicator. Colorimetric methods are also applicable. Markets and Prices Iodine and its compounds are generally marketed in the form of: iodine, crude; iodine, resublimed; calcium iodates; calcium iodide; potassium iodide, sodium iodide, and numerous organic compounds. Product Specifications Crude iodine, World market: 99-99.5% 12. Crude iodine, US produced, average: 99.8% 12. Crude iodine, USP XVII Specs: not less than 99.8% percent I2. Resublimed iodine is usually 99.9% and ACS specifications call for not over 0.005% total bromine and 0.020% nonvolatile materials (Anon., 1971). Prices, c.i.f. United States, for iodine have been steadily increasing from $1.18 per lb of crude in 1967 to $6.37-7.27 in January 1981 (Anon., 1981). In 1980 the price of iodine increased by 50%.

Jan 1, 1983

William M. Courtis, Detroit, Mich. (communication to the Secretary*):—I have a few items to add to the history of the Lake Valley mines. In December, 1879, I was sent to the Bassic mine of Colorado and then to Lone mountain, near Silver City, N. M., and to various copper-camps in Arizona. I staged from Glorietta, N. M., to Tucson, Ariz., stopping at Silver City to see the Cosette mine. This mine led to the opening of the Lake Valley mines, and is a deposit of similar formation. New Year&apos;s day, 1880, found me crossing the Rio Grande above the Jornado del Muerto. At Aleman, Victorio&apos;s band crossecl four hours ahead of us. We picked up four wounded soldiers to take to Fort Bayard, for during the day the colored troops under General Hatch had been driving the Indians back through the San Andreas mountains. The traveler of to-day little realizes the dangers of these trips, when over very rough roads we made about 100 miles in a day and a night. I subsequently made this trip six times, up to 1882, and each time I missed an Indian attack by from one to four days. The day I arrived at Silver City news had come of the massacre of 75 women and children at the San Francisco ranch. The fighting-men of&apos; Silver City had gone to rescue others. I was the only passenger from Socorro, N. M., until we picked up the soldiers. The next day we came suddenly on 5 of Victorio&apos;s band, but we had picked up several miners, so our stage bristled with guns, and we mere let alone. At or near my stone quarry, 6 miles from Socorro, 9 men, were killed by the band that, a day or two after, killed George. Daly, Lieutenant White, and all their men. During this raid, our miners and women at the mine slept in the tunnel. At the Cosette mine I had 35 men at work. These Indian raids had

Jan 1, 1910

By K. Mukai, M. Ishihara

This report is a brief discussion of the impurity levels both in primary aluminum and super-purily alnminim in connection with raw materials and proc-essing methods. Particularly, truce amounls of im-purities were analyzed by introducing nittss-speclro-gruphy and nenlron-aclivalian analysis techniques. Vanadium and gallium content in primary aluminum metal corresponded to theor amounls in anode coke. but the nickel content in primary aluminum was hide-pendent oj its amount in the anode cake. Sulfur in the anode colic might result in an increase of the iron content in the molten metal in the reduction cell. The content of sodium and calcium increased with increasing bath ratio. In the holding furnacc sodium content decreased rapidly, and nonmetallic inclusions merit separated front the mollen metal. Three-layer elctrolysis was effectire in eliminating many impuri-ties with the exception of copper, aluminum oxide. aluminum nitride, and some rare-earth elements. THE amount of impurities and nonmetallic inclusions in aluminum metal depends on impurities in the raw materials and various production processes. This paper presents an investigation of the behavior of impurities and nonmetallic inclusions in aluminum during the electrolysis process, the period in the holding furnace, and the process of three-layer electrolysis. Chemical analysis and emission spectrometric analysis have generally been used as methods to determine small amounts of impurities in both primary aluminum and super-purity aluminum; however. mass spectrography and neutron-activation analysis have been recently introduced into this field, and trace amounts of impurities can accurately be determined by these latter methods. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Common impurities were determined by means of absorptiometric. polarographic, flame-photometric. and emission-spectrometric methods. However, in the determination of trace amounts of impurities and non-metallic inclusions, the following methods were applied. In the analyses of trace impurities by mass-spec- trographic analysis, samples were exposed in the vacuum spark of double-focus ing Mattauch-Herzog type mass spectrograph (Japan Electron Optics Laboratory, Ltd.). Ilford Q2 photographic plates were used as ion detectors. Fe was used as the internal standard, and the atomic concentration of each element was calculated by the following expression and converted into the weight concentration: where E, and Ei are the exposures (coulomb) when isotopes of the internal standard and impurity elements (on which the estimate is based) show the same density, X is the percent (atomic) concentration of the standard, IF and Ii are the percent abundances of the isotopes of the standard the impurity elements (on which the estimate is based), and Ms and hfi are the mass of the isotopes of the standard and impurity elements (on which the estimate is based). The coefficient of variation in this method is about 40 pct in the range of 0.1 to 1 ppm. In neutron-activation analysis, irradiations were done in the nuclear reactors TRIGA-I1 (neutron flux: 4.7 x 10 11 n per sq cm per sec; Rikkyo University) or JRR-2 (neutron flux: 2 x 1013 n per sq cm per sec: Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute). After the chemical separation, a NaI (3 by 3 in.) scintillator connected to a 256-channel y-ray spectrometer (R.C.L.) was used for counting and recording various activated impurities. The coefficient of variation in this method is about 20 pct. In the analyses of nonmetallic inclusions, aluminum-oxide determination was carried out according to Fischer&apos;s method, 3 as follows. A slice of sample was cut off and the surface was cleaned. It was dissolved in bromine-methanol. The solution was filtered and the residue was washed. The residue was fused with potassium bisulfate flux. Then it was dissolved in weak acid, and oxine solution was added. The aluminum oxinate was extracted with benzene. Finally, aluminum was determined absorptio-metrically. Aluminum nitride determination was carried out as follows. A slice of sample was cut off and the surface was cleaned. It was put in the distillation apparatus and decomposed with sodium hydroxide solution. The solution was distilled. Then ammonia was absorbed and

Jan 1, 1967

By H. M. Fisher, R. E. Snow, S. C. Sun

SEVERAL constructive and fundamental studies have been made in the analysis of data obtained from experiments carried on with batch ball and rod mills. The operating characteristics of ball milling in small continuous circuits have also been appraised. It is from these analyses that some of the theories of comminution have been developed. Relatively few studies of continuous rod milling have added significantly to the fundamental concepts, because seldom have they yielded sufficiently consistent results. Perhaps they have been too limited in their scope. Careful control of the variables in batch grinding is simple compared with that encountered in a continuous operation. This factor alone has discouraged many investigators. Occasionally results of systematic changes made in industrial rod mill circuits have been published, but usually the data are sketchy and are restricted because of the unwieldiness of the equipment used. The work, in general, has not been comprehensive; nevertheless it has provided empirical relationships that have bridged the gap between postulate and practice so that by proper manipulation of formulae, a mill designer can anticipate mill size and power requirements.14 Although operating variables of a small continuous mill are not so easy to control as with the batch mill, with present day devices, and with careful experimental work, consistent results can be obtained. Nearly four years ago, in the Process Laboratory, Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co. began a systematic study of the effects of several variables upon the performance of the pilot rod mill. A mill was built in the laboratory to provide the versatility required for the proposed study. It was constructed in sections so that it could be operated, with a few modifications, as a rod mill 30 in. x 8 ft or 30 in. x 4 ft. The discharge end of the shell was flanged so that either an end peripheral discharge or an overflow discharge could be installed. Thus the performance of at least four types of mills could be studied merely by changing the type of discharge or the length of the mill shell. The grinding experiments were designed so that a study could be made of the way in which the mill speed, feed rate, and pulp density influenced the performance of both overflow and end peripheral discharge rod mills. Four sets of experimental data were collected from the four mill arrangements. The mill in each set of experiments was fed at four rates of feed depending on the length of the mill, at four pulp densities, and at five percentages of critical speed. Electrical and mechanical controls were in- stalled to regulate all these independent variables, and auxiliary devices were used to verify the precision of the controls at each point. The dependent variables used to quantify the experiments were the reduction ratio and the hew surface area produced as calculated from sieve analyses. These were incorporated with the energy factor by the calculation of both the new surface produced per unit of energy and the Bond work index.&apos; Rod wear, as a dependent variable, was not studied because of the short period of operation for each run. Exclusive of repeat runs, each set of experiments yielded 80 products, and the total study at least 320 products, all of which were quantified. With the operating information collected, these data presented a bewildering accumulation. Statistical analysis has been invaluable in unraveling the confusion and in presenting a means of establishing the nature and the magnitude of the significant variables. Data presented in this paper are those from the 30 in. x 4 ft end peripheral discharge rod mill, Fig. 1, when limestone was ground at feed rates of 1000, 2000, 4000, and 5000 lb per hr, at pulp densities of 50, 60, 70, and 80 pct solids, and at mill speeds of 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90 pct of the critical speed. These 80 tests have all been run at least twice, and occasionally a third time, to prove that the data obtained were reproducible. The techniques of operation and the methods of quantification of results are described in the following pages and the results analyzed statistically to show the significant variables. The variables are plotted to show the relationships that exist. A massive dolomitic limestone from Waukesha Lime and Stone Co. was used for feed during these experiments because of its availability and its tex-tural uniformity. This limestone analyzed 28.7 pct CaO, 21.0 pct MgO, 6.0 pct SiO2, 0.4 pct A1²O³, and 0.3 pct Fe²O³ and had a loss on ignition of 44.1 pct. It had a rod mill grindability at 14 mesh of 9.6 grams per revolution from which a work index of 13.9 was calculated. The ball mill grindability at

Jan 1, 1955

By E. H. Lancaster, M. E. Mitchell

A MUD-conditioning program found to be very effective for drilling and completion operations on routine field wells requiring relatively short drilling time involves a moderate alkaline-tannate-bentonite treatment resulting in an ultimate filtration rate of 10.0 cc or less (API test). Mud weight schedules are planned from pressure information on completed wells in producing reservoirs and drill-stem test data obtained on other zones not being produced at present. In general, terminal mud viscosities average 45 sec (Marsh). This value has been found to be sufficient to remove cuttings from the well bore on the average well, with the slush pumps in general use on the rigs. On field wells requiring drilling times in excess of approximately 30 days, an alkaline-tannate-lime-bentonite treatment has been effective in maintaining desirable viscosities and filtration rates with a substantial reduction in chemical costs. This system has shown particular advantage on heavily weighted muds and those with abnormal flow-line temperatures. For the most part, the chemical treatment utilized in wildcat drilling follows closely the program used on field wells, depending on depth and duration of drilling operations. Wildcat mud programs are planned from information available from various geologic and operational sources, taking into consideration the possibility of encountering mud problems of a special nature in the wildcat area. Careful planning of wildcat mud pro- grams has proved to have definite value in avoiding most serious mud problems. An analysis and recommended treatment are presented on several special. mud problems which have been encountered in the area in the past. Those problems discussed are lost circulation, blowouts, sloughing shale, excessive chloride contamination, sulphate contamination, and prevention and correction of cement contamination. Introduction Drilling-mud control in the Southwest Texas area, in general, does not involve the multiplicity of problems encountered in other coastal areas. For instance, it is rare that a mixture of problems such as lost circulation, abnormal pressure, severe sloughing shale, and others, occurs on one well within close enough limits in vertical depth not to be taken care of by a sensible casing program, together with a relatively clear-cut mud program. There are conditions such as the fairly widespread occurrence of abnormal pressure in the lower Frio and Vicksburg zones, and the tendency for sloughing shale in the Jackson section which make for rather expensive mud control. However, the availability of fairly accurate geologic and operational information makes possible a reasonable degree of standardization on mud treatment over a relatively large area. It may be said that, over most of this area where drilling is currently in progress, the natural mud made is very poor in quality, but responds readily to moderate chemical treatment to yield very good wall-building characteristics. AS far as field development drilling is concerned, the mud engineer&apos;s principal job, once the routine treatment best

Jan 1, 1949

By H. D. Kiddle

IN mining in Malaya has been a courageous ad- venture in private enterprise, attended by all the hazards of prospecting in unexplored areas of tropical jungles-jungles that still cover four-fifths of the country. To assess the contribution of an industry to a country&apos;s revenue, it is necessary to consider not only duties levied on the products, but also the revenue from all businesses and individuals directly and indirectly deriving income from the industry. Exact figures are not obtainable, but from 1850 until shortly before the first World War, tin mining in Malaya was a dominant factor in the Federation&apos;s development. Even at the turn of the century, tin export duty alone represented 45 pct of total Government revenue, while in the 40-year period up to the end of 1937, tin ore duties collected by the Federated Malay States Government amounted to 383,- 81 0,284 Malayan dollars,* approximately one-fifth of the total revenue for the same period.

Jan 11, 1957

By Basil B. Zavoico

The symposium on production for the year 1942 contains no papers on the foreign situation except those on Argentina and Mexico. It has always been the policy of officers in charge of the symposium to refrain from publishing information that might possibly injure national or private interests. At the close of the war we hope again to publish full and accurate records of production abroad. Excerpts From Circular to Authors In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from the Circular to Authors. The field is the unit in this tabulation. In cases of fields extending across State boundaries, such as Rodessa, it is suggested that each State author treat the section of the field in his State as a unit, and by a footnote indicate that the field extends into an adjacent State. Each space in Table I may represent one of four possibilities; either it is not applicable to the particular field, or the proper entry is not determinable, or the proper entry may be determinable but is not determinable from data available to the author, or the proper entry is determinable. When spaces are not applicable, leave blank; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not determinable from data available to the author, please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author, make such entries. y implies a Rope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. The entry of a zero is a positive declaration, and it is an important declaration where it is in order. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entry need not be hedged to such extent as when the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. It is thought that the nearest whole numbers are sufficiently accurate for our purposes except as to percentage of sulphur in oil. If an author desires to report any other figures to tenths, he may do so. The quantity of gas produced should include, where possible, gas sold or otherwise marketed, and gas blown into the air, burned as flares or otherwise wasted. Segregation of these figures would be interesting if the authors can make such segregation. In any event, the figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir. Under the columns on "Depth," the average depth to the top of the productive zones and to the bottom of the productive wells, when subtracted, should give the approximate thickness of the productive zone. For fields where this is not true because of unusually high dip or for some other reasons, it is suggested that the authors indicate in their text the approximate average thickness of the productive zone.

Jan 1, 1943

By R. C. Buehl, M. B. Royer

A three ton per day blast furnace using blast temperatures up to 2200°F was operated to recover manganese from open-hearth slag and manganiferous iron ore. The spiegel product containing 12 to 24 pct Mn was blown in a basic converter to high manganese oxide slag as described in the paper which follows this one. HE steel industry, which uses over 900,000 short tons of contained manganese yearly, depends on the maintenance of supplies of manganese from foreign sources such as India, Gold Coast, and Union of South Africa. Domestic ores furnish less than 10 pct of the yearly requirements of metallurgical ores and, unfortunately, the United States has no large, or even moderate, grade deposits that could supply a major portion of the requirements for many years. It may be necessary to obtain manganese from low grade materials, even though the cost is appreciably higher than when imported ores are used. An American Iron and Steel Institute questionnaire prepared in 1949 revealed the startling fact that open-hearth slags contained about as much manganese as is imported annually. The quantity of slag produced each year by integrated steel plants (not including cold-melt shops) and the manganese contained in the slag follows: Flush slag, 4,500,000 net tons a year containing 408,000 net tons Mn; tap slag, 7,230,000 net tons a year containing 364,000 net tons Mn; for a total of 772,000 net tons Mn. Some of this slag is returned to blast furnaces but about 75 pct would be available for the recovery of manganese. In several decades, when many of the present sources of high manganese ores have been depleted, open-hearth slag and manganiferous iron ore may become the major source of the manganese required for steel production. In 1948, manganese-ore imports from the U.S.S.R. were 427,000 net tons or 34 pct of the foreign ore. Imports from this source were only 81,000 tons in 1949. It became evident that adequate stockpiles of manganese could not be accumulated for many years. The Bureau of Mines initiated an extensive research program on methods for increasing domestic production of manganese and entered into a cooperative agreement with the American Iron and Steel Institute for recovering manganese from open-hearth slags whereby the Institute provided additional research funds and trained operating personnel. Description of Process and Equipment Numerous pyrometallurgical and hydrometallur-gical processes and combinations of the two can be applied to the recovery of manganese from open-hearth slag and manganiferous iron ore. The process being developed at the Pittsburgh Station of the Bureau of Mines consists of: 1—Reduction of open-hearth slag in a blast furnace to recover the iron and manganese as spiegel-eisen with 12 to 24 pct Mn. 2—Selective oxidation of the manganese from the blast-furnace metal in a basic-lined converter to produce a high manganese slag with up to 60 pct Mn content, which is a synthetic ore for the production of ferromanganese. This process has the advantage over other processes in that the equipment which would be used, such as blast furnaces and converters, has been highly

Jan 1, 1953

By N. J. Grant, Hans Brunner

ThE materials used in this investigation were furnished by the Aluminum Co. of America and consisted of high-purity alurhinum (99.995 pct) and two aluminum-magnesium alloys containing approximately 2 and 5 pct Mg. The compositions of these alloys are listed in Table I. The materials were received as hot rolled 3/8-in. diam rods and were made from the same heats as the materials which were previously used in this laboratory.&apos;j3 The rods were cold swaged to 1/4-in. diam by 1 in. long, and then had two parallel flats machined over the gage length 0.085 in. apart. The test bars were annealed for 10 min at 700° F, and strained 1 pct in tension at room temperature. They were electropolished (80 pct acetic acid; 20 pct perchloric acid, 70 pct concentration) at a temperature of 60°F at approximately 20 v. A grid, transverse or square, spaced 0.2 mm apart, was impressed by rolling a fine threaded screw (128 threads per in.) across the flat surfaces. The depth of the grooves was less than 5 p. For final annealing and grain size control the specimens were enclosed in aluminum foil and sealed in Vycor tubes. Annealing conditions varied from 1 hr at 700° F to 5 days at 1050° F, depending on the alloy content, to give for most of the specimens a final grain size of about 1 mm. This treatment was followed by electropol-ishing as described above. For the test series presented in Figs. 4 and 5 round specimens were used instead of flat ones, and fine machining marks served as marker lines instead of the impressed grid lines. Electropolishing was omitted. The major advantage is that the spacing of the machining marks is only about 1 u as compared to the 200 u of the impressed grid lines, permitting higher precision in strain measurements. Unfortunately the strain annealing necessary for grain size control also resulted in some preferred orientation of the grains. The preferred orientation of three arbitrary specimens was measured by X-ray diffraction methods and the averaged results are shown in Fig. 1. The possible effects of the preferred orientation on the test results will be discussed later. The testing temperatures were 410°, 515", 725", and 940° F, with one exception in the case of the 5.1 pct Mg alloy. Since the solubility limit of this alloy is 520°F, a test temperature of 545°F was cho-se sen instead of 515°F. The selection of the test temperature was based on two considerations: 1) at 900°F and above, extensive grain boundary migration made it more difficult to measure grain boundary sliding; 2) at 400°F and below, there was so little grain boundary sliding that it was again difficult to make precise measurements. The stress was chosen to give a creep rate of approximately 2.7 pct per hr in connection with Figs. 2

Jan 1, 1961