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By R. E. Ogilvie, H. C. Gatos, R. E. Hanneman

The effect of high pressure on the stability of the (any phase transformation in the Fe-V system was studied by experimental and theoretical methods. The maximum solubility limit of the y loop of the atmospheric phase diagram was found to increase by a factor of five at 40 kbars pres-sure. The solubility limits of (Y and y phases are calculated on an approximate thermodynamic basis at pressures of 20, 40, and 50 kbars as a function THE high-pressure behavior of the a =^ y transformation in iron and iron-base alloys has been the subject of considerable interest recently. For those binary or higher-order alloy systems possessing a closed y loop, the effect of pressure is to extend the region of solubility of the more dense y phase. Although quite accurate calculations have been made of the a y temperature-pressure diagram of pure iron,' only very approximate thermodynamic calculations or experimental measurements have been made of the pressure dependence of a ^ y equilibria in binary systems exhibiting a y loop.2"4 of temperature and are found in excellent agreement with experimental results. The experimental high-pressure phase diagrams were determined using binary diffusion couples diffused under simultaneous conditions of high pressure and temperature and analyzed with an electron microbeam probe. Approximate calculations of the stabilizing effect of high pressure on the o phase are qualitatively confirmed by experimental results. These previous calculations have primarily dealt with the slopes of the allotropic a (Y= y phase boundary at terminal solubility. The lack of detailed understanding or accurate experimental results of the pressure dependence of the two-phase a ^ y field has been due, in part, to the types of experimental methods previously employed. The primary purposes of the current paper are twofold: 1) to develop and make use of thermodynamic expressions with the aid of supplementary data, to approximately calculate the pressure dependence of the entire y loop and the two-phase ((Y + y) width in the Fe-V system; and 2) to accurately determine the corresponding experimental high-pressure phase diagrams. The current paper describes the powerful method used which enables the simultaneously measurement of phase equilibria and diffusion under high pressure and temperature. A second paper, part 11, will deal with the effect of high pressure on binary diffusion in the Fe-V system.

Jan 1, 1965

By John T. Galey

Production of crude oil for 1940 in southwestern Pennsylvania was off nearly 70,000 bbl., largely as a result of the great number oi abandonments, together with the lack of extension of the Washington and Green County pools. Oil wells completed numbered 51, which is 26 more than last year, but the total initial production of 259 bbl. is only 18 bbl. greater than in 1939. There was an increase of 72 over last year for a total of 209f gas wells. However, 68 7 dry holes were drilled, which is 40 more than a year ago. Thus, 328f wells were drilled during the year, and rigs are erected or drilling is progressing on 59 t more. Shallow Development Oil.—Butler County led in number of oil wells completed, with a total of 27 for an initial production of only 69 bbl. Washington County, with 12 new oil wells, one of which made 40 bbl. from the Fifth sand in S. Franklin township, has 95 bbl., while in Allegheny County 9 wells gave an initial of 86 bbl. for the highest Per well average in the area. This initial was given a considerable boost by one 35-bbl and another 2;-bbl. well in West Deer township, where the Fourth sand produced at 1840 feet. Greene County had only one oil well completed during 1940, and Washington County had 12. The subnormal totals for these counties may be explained by the higher cost of completions and the declining price of crude. The first price change in crude during the year occurred on May 22, when a 25 cut was made. A second 25 cut was made July 12, and was followed by a 156 cut on .Aug. 28. This price held until Nov. 12, when there was a restoration of 156. On Dec. 17 a second 156 increase was put into effect, bringing the price to $I.So per barrel. Gas The large increase in the number of gas wells completed may be attributed to three factors; namely, the recently discovered production possibilities of moderately deep, hitherto little tested horizons, together with increased demand and price. The latter has been made possible by a recent decision of the court, which ruled restraining the public service Commision's prohibition of a raise in the minimum monthly charge to small consumers by one of the major gas companies. A portion of the revenue derived in this manner is being passed along to the producer in the form of higher prices in the field. This higher field rate will remain in effect until a new ruling is made, when it will be reduced in proportion to the reduction of the monthly minimum charge. In an effort to extend the chambers Dam Fifth sand oil pool southwest from Amwell township, Washington County, several wells have been drilled. One of these, in Morris township, washington County, had an initial of 3.2 million cu. ft. open flow from the Big Injun sand. This indicates an entirely new productive area for the latter horizon. Allegheny County had one spectacular well in South Fayette township-—at a depth of about 2500 ft. a 4-million-CU. ft.

Jan 1, 1941

By John T. Galey

Production of crude oil for 1940 in southwestern Pennsylvania was off nearly 70,000 bbl., largely as a result of the great number oi abandonments, together with the lack of extension of the Washington and Green County pools. Oil wells completed numbered 51, which is 26 more than last year, but the total initial production of 259 bbl. is only 18 bbl. greater than in 1939. There was an increase of 72 over last year for a total of 209f gas wells. However, 68 7 dry holes were drilled, which is 40 more than a year ago. Thus, 328f wells were drilled during the year, and rigs are erected or drilling is progressing on 59 t more. Shallow Development Oil.—Butler County led in number of oil wells completed, with a total of 27 for an initial production of only 69 bbl. Washington County, with 12 new oil wells, one of which made 40 bbl. from the Fifth sand in S. Franklin township, has 95 bbl., while in Allegheny County 9 wells gave an initial of 86 bbl. for the highest Per well average in the area. This initial was given a considerable boost by one 35-bbl and another 2;-bbl. well in West Deer township, where the Fourth sand produced at 1840 feet. Greene County had only one oil well completed during 1940, and Washington County had 12. The subnormal totals for these counties may be explained by the higher cost of completions and the declining price of crude. The first price change in crude during the year occurred on May 22, when a 25 cut was made. A second 25 cut was made July 12, and was followed by a 156 cut on .Aug. 28. This price held until Nov. 12, when there was a restoration of 156. On Dec. 17 a second 156 increase was put into effect, bringing the price to $I.So per barrel. Gas The large increase in the number of gas wells completed may be attributed to three factors; namely, the recently discovered production possibilities of moderately deep, hitherto little tested horizons, together with increased demand and price. The latter has been made possible by a recent decision of the court, which ruled restraining the public service Commision's prohibition of a raise in the minimum monthly charge to small consumers by one of the major gas companies. A portion of the revenue derived in this manner is being passed along to the producer in the form of higher prices in the field. This higher field rate will remain in effect until a new ruling is made, when it will be reduced in proportion to the reduction of the monthly minimum charge. In an effort to extend the chambers Dam Fifth sand oil pool southwest from Amwell township, Washington County, several wells have been drilled. One of these, in Morris township, washington County, had an initial of 3.2 million cu. ft. open flow from the Big Injun sand. This indicates an entirely new productive area for the latter horizon. Allegheny County had one spectacular well in South Fayette township-—at a depth of about 2500 ft. a 4-million-CU. ft.

Jan 1, 1941

By Julian M. Avery

In its dual role of pig-iron smelter and gas producer, the blast furnace is a remarkably satisfactory and efficient apparatus. Many metallurgists and engineers have pointed out, however, that since the primary function of the blast furnace is to produce pig iron at the lowest possible cost, its function as a gas producer should be subordinated to this primary purpose. During the past 10 years or more, improvements in blast-furnace technique and economy have, in fact, been directed primarily to increasing efficiency in the use of the reducing power of the gases produced by combustion of coke at the tuyeres, to reduce iron ore within the furnace. The net over-all result is a decrease in the fuel value of the top gas per unit of volume, and per ton of pig iron, which is evidently more than offset in value by the corollary saving in coke and the possibility of increased furnace capacity, for otherwise there would be no point in making such improvements. The purpose of the present paper is to suggest that, while progress has been made in this direction, there is another approach to the problem of increasing the chemical and thermal efficiency of the blast furnace in its primary role as a pig-iron smelter, which appears to offer possibilities of improvement in over-all ecorlomy of a different order of magnitude than results thus far obtained by the use of other expedients. The present argument is based in large part upon the hypothesis that the efficiency and economics of pig-iron smelting are seriously and adversely affected by the phenomenon known as "solution loss," and that the problem of solution loss call be successfully attacked by increasing the over-all pressure; i.e., the "top prcssure" under which the furnace is operated. It is indicated that pressure operation may also be expected to result in concomitant benefits, which may be summed up as generally improved operating conditions, together with a substantial saving in fuel and/or a substantial increase in furnace capacity. In a broad sense, the suggestion of pressure operation of the pig-iron blast furnace is not new, for operation under moderately increased over-all pressure was suggested as early as 1871, by no less an authority than

Jan 1, 1938

By Julian M. Avery

In its dual role of pig-iron smelter and gas producer, the blast furnace is a remarkably satisfactory and efficient apparatus. Many metallurgists and engineers have pointed out, however, that since the primary function of the blast furnace is to produce pig iron at the lowest possible cost, its function as a gas producer should be subordinated to this primary purpose. During the past 10 years or more, improvements in blast-furnace technique and economy have, in fact, been directed primarily to increasing efficiency in the use of the reducing power of the gases produced by combustion of coke at the tuyeres, to reduce iron ore within the furnace. The net over-all result is a decrease in the fuel value of the top gas per unit of volume, and per ton of pig iron, which is evidently more than offset in value by the corollary saving in coke and the possibility of increased furnace capacity, for otherwise there would be no point in making such improvements. The purpose of the present paper is to suggest that, while progress has been made in this direction, there is another approach to the problem of increasing the chemical and thermal efficiency of the blast furnace in its primary role as a pig-iron smelter, which appears to offer possibilities of improvement in over-all ecorlomy of a different order of magnitude than results thus far obtained by the use of other expedients. The present argument is based in large part upon the hypothesis that the efficiency and economics of pig-iron smelting are seriously and adversely affected by the phenomenon known as "solution loss," and that the problem of solution loss call be successfully attacked by increasing the over-all pressure; i.e., the "top prcssure" under which the furnace is operated. It is indicated that pressure operation may also be expected to result in concomitant benefits, which may be summed up as generally improved operating conditions, together with a substantial saving in fuel and/or a substantial increase in furnace capacity. In a broad sense, the suggestion of pressure operation of the pig-iron blast furnace is not new, for operation under moderately increased over-all pressure was suggested as early as 1871, by no less an authority than

Jan 1, 1938

By Benjamin LeRoy Miller, Joseph T. Singewald

For a number of years Russia, India and Brazil have outranked all other countries as producers of manganese ores. During the 5 years immediately preceding the European war, the average annual production of Russia was 844,000, of India 694,000 and of Brazil 200,000 long tons. Since the outbreak of the war there has been a considerable falling off in the Russian and Indian production, particularly in the former, whereas the production of Brazilian ores has been greatly increased, amounting in 1914 to over 250,000 tons and in 1915 to nearly 350,000, with conditions favorable for a still larger production in 1916. Manganese is one of the few industrially important metals that are not produced in the United States in quantity commensurate with our needs, so that we have been compelled to import annually about 300,000 tons, having a value of over $2,000,000, and these ores have been obtained from the three countries mentioned above. Their rank as contributors to our imports of manganese ores was India, Russia, Brazil; and in 1913, Brazil contributed only one-fifth. During the past 2 years Brazil has furnished rapidly increasing quantities to this country, and, with the falling off of imports from India and Russia, has become our principal foreign source. In 1914, Brazil furnished two-fifths of the imports and more than India or Russia, and in 1915 over nine-tenths. The manganese ores of Brazil are consequently of more than usual interest to us at this time. The Manganese-Ore Distbicts of Brazil , The manganese mining industry of Brazil dates from the year 1894, and since that year the total production has been over 3,000,000 tons. With the exception of a small quantity produced in the State of Bahia from deposits west of the City of Bahia, this output has come from the

Jan 1, 1917

WILDER D. BANCROFT,* Washington, D. C. (written discussion?).¬In two-phase systems there are three possibilities and Mr. Alexander has only considered two. We may have the first phase the internal one and the second the external one; we may have the first phase the external one and the second phase the internal one; and we may have both phases continuous. This last case occurs when we have a roll of wire fencing standing in the air; the wire is continuous and so is the air. It is quite probable that this case occurs very often in alloys and it it, therefore, important that it should not be overlooked. With gulch,

Jan 3, 1919

By P. H. Dudley

The present paper was suggested by the paper read by Mr. R. W. Hunt at the New York Meeting, in February last, on rail-sections (Trans., xvii., p. 778)) in the discussion of which I brought forward some of the facts and observations here stated. Professional duties having prevented me from writing out my part of that discussion in time for its publication in the volume containing Mr. Hunt's paper, I take the opportunity to present it in separate form and greater fulness. The striking features of the series of rail-sections submitted by Mr. Hunt are their shallow heads and heavy bases. In these respects they are quite similar to the section of the 80-1b. rail, which I designed in 1883 to meet the requirements of the traffic of the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad. Before the adoption of the 80-1b. rail, this road had modified its 65-1b. section from a shallow head with rounding sides and quite heavy base to one having a deep head and thin base. All the leading railroads had changed from the earlier sections of steel rails to those having deep heads and thin bases, conforming to the recommendations of the Committee on Rails of the American Society of Civil Engineers. It is but proper to say that the committee's investigations upon the wear of rails were made upon the rails manufactured under a practice quite different from that which obtained after the committee's recommendations were carried into effect. The results in actual service have been contrary to what was expected. Fig. 1 shows my 80-1b. section of 1883. Before designing this rail I had taken, at different times, a series of diagrams of the condition of tracks, with my car, on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, all of the New England railroads, and all but one of the trunk lines. My diagrams gave me an opportunity which could not otherwise have been obtained to see the wear of great numbers of sections of rails under widely varying conditions of traffic.

Jan 1, 1890

"Acta Metallurgical, C E Birchenall, Dec '58 Alfred Noble Joint Prize Committee F B Foley, Dec '61 American Association for the Advancement of Science J T MacKenzie, Dec '58, 0 B J Fraser, Dec '57 American Geological Institute Charles F Park, Oct '58, Arthur Montgomery, Oct '59 Committee on Government Relations American Power Conference J P Weir, T D Hess American Standards Association , Mining Standards Board E R Borcherdt, Jan '59, Otto Herres, '59, J K Richardson, Dec '58, Alternate E W Bullard

Jan 1, 1958

By C. Perez-Rosales

A simplified method for evaluating specific surface of porous media is described. The theory takes as its point of departure a previous statistical method. Due to its simplicity, it is considered that the proposed method has certain advantages over methods currently used. By making some simplifications, the procedure for estimating specific surface is reduced to superposing, on an enlarged reproduction of a section of the sample to be analyzed, an evenly spaced grid and counting the number of intersections of the grid lines with the perimeter of pores. An indirect test of the theory is presented and the advantages of the method are discussed. INTRODUCTION The specific surface of a porous medium, defined as the surface area of the pores per unit bulk volume, is an important parameter with regard to flow of fluids through porous materials. In particular, it has long been recognized that specific surface is closely related to permeability. Since the internal surface of any porous material is extremely complex, the measurement of specific surface can only be accomplished by indirect means. It is considered that the best method' in current use for determining specific surface is the statistical method of Chalkley, Cornfield and Parka who originally applied it for estimating volume-surface ratios of morphologic components, such as cells or nuclei. This method will be outlined later. A method which has been used extensively in determining specific surface is based on the adsorption of a vapor by the internal surface of porous media. However, this method does not yield the surface pertinent to fluid flow, since it includes the tiny molecular interstices which do not influence the permeability of the porous material.' This method has been employed by Brooks and Purcell measure internal surface area of sedimentary rocks. The Kozeny equation, which relates the specific surface to the permeability of a porous medium, has found wide use in determination of specific surface. However, the KOzeny equation is not strictly correct. Large discrepancies have been found between theory and experiments.' Consequently. the specific surface estimated by this method is subject to serious uncertainties. Finally, there are other methods for specific surface measurements which are based upon a variety of physical and chemical properties: the heat conduction by a gas, ionic adsorption phenomena and direct chemical reactions of the surface with other substances. This paper describes a simplified statistical method for determining specific surface of porous materials. It is considered that, due to its simplicity, it has certain advantages over the methods presently used. For its validity, it is required that the porous structure of the material under study be of a spatially random nature. This is not a serious limitation since the naturally occurring porous media have this characteristic. THEORY The method proposed in this paper takes as its point of departure the interesting result obtained by Chalkley et al The method shows that if a line of length r is dropped repeatedly at random over a section of a porous medium, and counts are made of the number of times the two end points fall within pore areas (denoted by h for "hits") and the number of times the line intersects the perimeter of pores (denoted by c for "cuts"), then in a very large number of throws where S is the internal surface of the sample (surface of pores) and V, the volume of the pores (Fig. 1). Since the specific surface S, and the porosity 4 are given, respectively, by S. = Sl V, and 4 = V,l V,, where V, is the total volume of the sample, it follows from Eq. 1

By N. Mungan

Laboratory imbibition and displacement experiments were performed using crude oil and cores drilled with water and preserved under anaerobic conditions. The purpose of these tests was to determine reservoir rock wettability and to find out if more oil could be recovered by use of NaOH solution than by conventional waterflooding. The preserved cores were found to be oil-wet. Contrary to work in the literature, these cores changed to water-wet upon contact with air. After exposure to air for a week, the cores yielded more oil by waterflooding than when preserved under exclusion of air. At reservoir temperature of 160F, flooding the preserved cores with 0.5N NaOH solution recovered more oil than an ordinary wa-terflood, and additional oil when following a waterflood. When the caustic solution was used from the beginning, all the extra oil was obtained before breakthrough; when the caustic followed a conventional waterflood, the extra oil was produced in the form of an oil bank ahead of the injected caustic. The increase in oil recovery resulted from wettability reversal. Also, use of caustic reduced the volume of injection required to flood out the cores. At room temperature, however, the caustic solution did not reverse the wettability and gave no additional oil recovery. Cores which had become water-wet by air exposure or caustic flooding were restored to their original oil-wet state when saturated with crude oil and allowed to equcilibrate at reservoir temperature for two weeks. Therefore, in the absence of preserved cores, it may be possible to restore weathered cores to their original wettability for use in laboratory floods. INTRODUCTION Waterflooding has been in use since 1865, and is by far the simplest of secondary recovery methods. Unfortunately, most waterfloods are inefficient in recovering oil, often leaving half or more of the original oil in place un-recovered. The low oil recovery generally results from low sweep efficiency and low displacement efficiency. Consequently, to increase oil recovery by waterflooding, sweep and displacement efficiencies should be improved. Sweep efficiency is primarily affected by reservoir heterogeneities and mobility ratio, while displacement efficiency is affected by the capillary forces between fluids and rock surfaces. For petroleum reservoirs, the capillary forces are expressed in terms of interfacial tension and wettability. If oil recovery is to be improved significantly in water- flooding, the capillary forces holding the oil in the raervoir porous matrix must be reduced or eliminated. One way to reduce capillary forces is to inject commercial surfactants ahead of the injection water into the reservoir. Laboratory tests of this method have shown no promise of an economical process yet, and no increase in oil recovery was obtained in the field trials which have been reported. Work is continuing in many companies to find surface-active agents which, in workable concentrations, can yield substantial added oil recovery. Another way to change capillary forces operating in petroleum reservoirs is by changing the pH of the injected water. Wagner et al.' showed that change in the pH sometimes activates the surface-active materials natural to some crudes and brings about gross wettability change. Since pH alteration can be obtained with cheap chemicals, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide, the process shows promise of being economical in a field application. Pan American Oil Corp. reported oil recovery by use of caustic solution from a flooded-out reservoir.' Their test, conducted at a small additional cost, yielded results which were so sufficiently favorable and encouraging that the wettability reversal flood was expanded to portions of the field not previously flooded.13 It is important to bear in mind that changes in the pH of the water not only can reverse wettability but also can lower the interfacial tension between water and crude oil. Reisberg and Doscher4 have studied the pH dependency of the interfacial tension of Venture crude using sodium hydroxide solutions of various concentrations. Their data show that the interfacial tension was lowered from 23.0 to 0.02 dynes/cm by increasing the NaOH concentration from 0.005 to 0.5 per cent by weight. Thus, the use of NaOH may lead to additional oil recovery due to both wettability reversal and lowering of interfacial tension. Whether alteration of pH results in wettability reversal from oil-wet to water-wet and increases oil recovery depends on wetting properties of the reservoir rock and the crude. This necessitates delicate laboratory experiments, with suitable core and fluid samples from a field. Although many investigators have studied wettability reversal floods in the laboratory,1,2,5,6 these studies have been carried out with synthetic porous media, refined laboratory fluids and surface-active chemicals to simulate the process. The study presented in this paper is the first time that wettability reversal by pH alteration has been accomolished in laboratory core floods using carefully preserved natural cores, live crude and with experiments performed at reservoir pressure and temperature.

Jan 1, 1967

By B. D. Cullity

This investigation of bismuth-selenium alloys was made in an attempt to find a suitable material for use in thermoelectric generators. These devices are simply thermocouple circuits designed for the efficient production of electrical energy from thermal energy, which may in turn be derived directly from solar radiation or from the combustion of fuels. The requirements of a material for use in a thermoelectric generator are obviously quite different from those of a material used in a temperature-measuring thermocouple. Naturally, for power generating purposes, the thermoelectric power (voltage produced per degree difference in temperature between the junctions) must be as high as possible. Furthermore, in order to obtain reasonably high power outputs, the materials used in the generator must have an electrical conductivity which is as high as possible. Finally, in order to minimize heat lost by conduction to the cold junction, the thermal conductivity must be as low as possible. The relation between these several factors and the efficiency of conversion of thermal into electrical energy—the thermoelectric efficiency—has been discussed by Telkesl in a recent review of the subject. She gives the thermoelectric efficiency as: W o Efficiency = -Wo ______________i____________ TR-TC+ O2TR-Tc) where W, = power output in external load (watts) Wi = rate of heat input to hot junction (watts) TE,T, = temperature of hot and cold junctions (oA) K1,Kz = thermal conductivity of the two thermocouple materials (watts/cm°C) p,,pz = electrical resistivity of the two thermocouple materials (ohm cm) 9 = thermoelectric power (volts0/C) For many materials, some of the desired properties (for example, high electrical and low thermal conductivity) are almost mutually exclusive; the problem thus becomes one of finding a material which has the optimum combination of pfoperties. Bismuth-selenium Alloys work on the equilibrium diagram of the bismuth-selenium alloys has been reviewed by Hanson who gives the diagram reproduced in There are two intermediate phases in this system, BiSe and Bi²Se3. The existence of an alpha and beta modification of BiSe has not been demonstrated satisfactorily and the writer found no evidence of it in the present work. BiSe and Bi2Se3 have, like bismuth, a rhombohedra1 crystal

Jan 1, 1949

By W. H. Emmons

IN 1922 Morey made a series of experiments in which he observed the cooling of a molten system containing H20, 9.1 per cent; K20, 17.3 per cent and Si02, 73.6 per cent. This system was confined in a bomb; it was fluid at 500° C. and exerted no vapor pressure. In cooling to 420° C. a large part of it crystallized and at that temperature much of the water had separated from the crystals and remained as steam, which built up a pressure of 4998 lb. per sq. in., a force sufficient to lift nearly one mile of granite.1 If granite, cooling at 600°, expels vapor in the process of crystalliza-tion it is reasonable to suppose that a considerably greater vapor pressure would result, and it is thought that the vapor expelled from crystallizing granitic batholiths probably has a pressure sufficient to lift two or three miles of granite. This vapor, collecting near the tops of cupolas of batholiths, is believed to exert sufficient pressure to fracture the hoods and roofs of batholiths above the cupolas. If that is true, one would expect to find that the fracture systems above cupolas are arranged in patterns that depend in part on the shapes of the cupolas. The mechanics of the situation seem to require that conical cupolas should have radial fracture patterns, that bluntly rounded cupolas should have fracture systems that are either irregular or rudely conjugated in plan, and that elongated stocks or cupolas should have fracture systems in which the fractures lie nearly parallel to the direction of the elongation of the cupolas.

Jan 1, 1934

By Simon D. Strauss

INTRODUCTION The changes in ownership, management, and operation of the non-fuel minerals industry since the Second World War have been dramatic. World-leading enterprises have lost their identity; host countries have taken over operations from multi-national firms; marketing practices have been drastically altered - and yet the world industry is supplying minerals on a scale far greater than had been anticipated in projections made at mid-century. The world's known mineral resources have been enormously expanded, despite the doom sayers who for decades have been predicting that depletion of non-renewable resources would impose limits to growth. PALEY REPORT One can set the stage by reviewing how the minerals outlook was regarded in a thoughtful and comprehensive analysis made in the years 1950 and 1951. During the War years, President Harry Truman of the United States had come to appreciate the decisive role played by minerals resources through his chairmanship as a U.S Senator of a committee that investigated the procurement and allocation of natural resources. In 1950, in the Cold War era that resulted in actual military conflict in Korea, he appointed a prestigious five-man commission to study the problems of Materials Policy over the following quarter century. Their findings, published in five impressive volumes in early 1952, became known as the Paley report. The text was prepared by expert scientists and economists who spent 18 months assembling statistics, making projections of future demand, and interviewing leaders in industry, academia, and government. [ ] The Commission had correctly foreseen that aluminum would replace copper as the largest volume non-ferrous metal, but it had fallen short of reality by a wide margin indeed for all three materials. Even though the Commission's expectations for growth proved to be extremely understated, it had concluded its report with grave foreboding about the effect of its estimates of demand in relation to supply, as follows: "Consumption of almost all materials is expanding at compound rates and is thus pressing harder and harder against resources which, whatever else they may be doing, are not similarly expanding. This materials problem is thus not the kind of 'shortage' problem, local and transient, which in the past has found its solution in price changes which have brought supply and demand back into balance. The terms of the materials problem we face today are larger and more pervasive." With respect to some minerals, the Paley Report expressed scepticism that, in fact, supplies would be forthcoming regardless of price. Because the Paley demand forecasts understated the actual growth in demand for virtually every mineral, one could logically have expected frequent and protracted shortages in the years since 1950.

Jan 1, 1985

Curlisle: We're sitting in Don McLaughlin's office overlooking Sun Francisco Bay, and he's going to be good enough to talk about early days in California, maybe about his college years in Berkeley, maybe about his first jobs in mining. Now, Don, would you be good enough to start it off by saying something about George Hearst. I know he died before you were born, but you know a lot about the family, and you no doubt know a lot about him. Certainly, nobody in those days matched his record in getting hold of good mines. McLaughlin: George Hearst died, actually, in the very year that I was born, but as I more or less grew up in the home of Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, who was his widow, I heard a great deal about the mines and the people that made the great fortune she inherited and used so wisely. But I don't think I really had an appreciation of George Hearst until 1 became active in the mining world and realized how many major mines he had picked in the early days and how much he had to do with their development into successful properties. He started in the California gold fields, but it was on the Comstock that he made his first big stake out of his substantial share in the Ophir mine. I believe at that time he was on his own. Then, later, he became associated with Ben Ali Haggin and Lloyd Tevis in San Francisco, and scoured the West for them. They made a little money in Eureka, Nevada, and other places, but the first important property that he obtained for them was the famous Ontario Mine in Park City, which became one of the great silver lead producers of the Continent. Then later he acquired the Homestake.

Jan 6, 1965

By N. A. Ziegler

CONSIDERABLE work has been and is being done on the changes of physical properties that take place in alloys at elevated temperatures, and much information on this subject is published. Much less is known, as pointed out by Rickett and Wood,1 about reactions between the alloys and atmospheric gases and still less is known about changes within the alloy itself under the influence of heat and given atmosphere. Moreover, most of the work published has been done on the alloys of "heat-resist-ing" type, in which chromium is an essential ingredient, the behavior of all other alloys being quite unknown, except perhaps of decarburization produced at the surface by oxidizing atmospheres. It has been shown' that iron, with total amount of foreign ingredients not exceeding 0.01 per cent, if heated in an oxidizing atmosphere at above 900° C., may be saturated with oxygen to 0.1 per cent. It was suspected that something of a similar nature may take place in iron-silicon alloys (transformer material), the mechanism of such processes being either a direct diffusion of oxygen into the alloy, or oxygen combining with silicon to form Si02 or more complicated (silicate) inclusions. Another possi-bility to be considered was that during annealing in oxidizing atmos-pheres, when scale is being formed, silicon may oxidize preferentially at the surface, thus impoverishing the alloy in silicon. In collaboration with Dr. T. D. Yensen,3 the writer set out to investigate this problem about two years ago in order to settle these questions.

Jan 1, 1934

"Located in Madison River Canyon, about 14 miles by road from Norris, Mont. Built in 1907 by Madison River Power Co.DAM: Rock filled wooden crib structure, 183 ft. long, 34 ft. high or 44 ft. to top of flashboards.SPILLWAY: 140 ft. long, equipped with flashboards 10 ft. high.PIPE: One 10-foot and one 12-foot wood-stave pipe, 7,515 feet long.PRESSURE: One pressure chamber, 32 ft. high, 30 ft. wide and 81 ft.CHAMBER: long, built of concrete.PENSTOCKS: 4 9-foot steel penstocks about 200 ft. long, one for each wheel.WATER WHEELS: 4 double horizontal, center discharge, Sampson special 44-inch turbines, 3,600 h-p., at 100 ft. head. Speed 300 r. p. m„ direct connected to generators.GENERATORS: 4 G. E., W. C., 2,250 k-w., 4,000 volts, 300 r. p. m., 3 phase, 60 cycles, alternators, with exciters mounted on same shaft.TRANSFORMERS: 12 G. E., W. C., 900 k-w., 60 cycles. High tension voltage 23,100, 34,650, 46,200; low tension voltage 4,000, 3,800, 3,600. Now operating at 46,200, delta connected. They can be connected Y for 40,000, 60,000 or 80,000.OPERATION: This is the principal plant of the whole system and carries most of the load."

Jan 1, 1913

By Jerome J. English, Gordon W. Powell

An experimental investigation and mathematical analysis of the thermal-dilation behavior of the titanium alloy Ti-7Al-3Cb have shown that the linear dimensional changes associated with the polymorphic transformation need not be isotropic. The absolute magnitude of the linear dimensional change, which may be either positiue or negative, associated with the cr-p transformation is dependent upon the relutzve volumes of different orientations of the transformation product. It is hypothesized that the dilation irregulati-ties that have been observed during the polymorphic transformation of pure, coarse-grained titanium and other titanium-base alloys can be explained in the same manner. When titanium is heated above about 165O°F, the hcp a structure transforms to bcc 0. Thermal-dilatioh measurements have shown that the transformation is accompanied by a decrease in length of 0.16 pct.' Such dilation behavior would be expected because the volume of the hcp unit cell is about 0.3 to 0.4 pct greater than that of the bcc unit cell. A recent investigation2 of the thermal-dilation behavior of an experimental a-p* titanium alloy, Ti- 7A1-3Cb, containing 0.06 wt pct 0 showed that its dilation behavior during the polymorphic transformation differed substantially from that reported for unalloyed titanium. The first time the alloy was cycled through the transformation, the dilation curve closely duplicated that of unalloyed titanium. However, upon repeated cycling through the transformation temperature range, both the magnitude and the sign of the dimensional change associated with the transformation were observed to vary with each cycle. This investigation was undertaken to obtain additional data on the dimensional changes associated with the polymorphic transformation in the Ti-7A1-3Cb alloy and to determine the cause of the dimensional irregularities. After testing, the specimens were examined metallo-graphically. In addition, Laue back-reflection patterns were obtained from selected sections taken perpendicular to the specimen axes to determine the a orientations present in these sections. White radiation from a tungsten target and a 0.1-mm-diam collimator were used to produce the diffraction patterns. RESULTS Dilation Curves. Three types of thermal-dilation curves were obtained when the a-8 titanium alloy was heated and cooled through the transformation temperature range. These three types of curves are illustrated in Fig. 1. The type I curve represents what is considered normal behavior, because the dilation change is what would be expected on the basis of the volumes of the unit cells of a and p. The Type I1 curve is the inverse of Type I. Normal behavior is characterized by an expansion on cooling through the transformation, whereas a contraction takes place in the Type 11 curve. With Type ni behavior, no clearly distinguishable length change occurs during the transformation. No other anomalies that might be indicative of other phase transformations were observed in the dilation curves at lower temperatures. Apparently, the cooling rate was low enough for equilibrium to be reached during the 0 to a transformation. Table I lists the types of dilation curves observed during the polymorphic transformation as a function of the direction of measurement and cycle number. The A1 value was determined by extrapolating the low-temperature (a + 5 pct p) and high-temperature (100 pct p) segments of the dilation curves to a common temperature and measuring the difference in the or-dinates at that temperature, see Fig. 1. The transformation occurs over a temperature range in this alloy, so the magnitude of A1 is not an absolute value but depends on the choice of temperature. A mean temperature, T,, within the transformation temperature range was selected for the measurement. T, on cooling occurred about 100°C lower than T, on heating. The first time each of the three dilation specimens was heated to above the temperature, that is, Cycle 2, normal Type I behavior was observed. In Cycle 3, two deviations from normal behavior occurred. First, during cooling of the longitudinal specimen, a substantially larger expansion, +0.21 pct, was measured as 0 transformed to a compared with +0.03 pct in Cycle 2. Second, the thickness specimen was observed to undergo a contraction instead of the anticipated expansion on cooling. Continued cycling of the three specimens from room temperature to 2500°F produced additional changes in the dilation behavior. These changes did not seem to be related to the fabrication direction of the alloy because the values of a1 for the longitudinal, transverse, and thickness specimens varied unpredictably in magnitude and sign. Furthermore, both the longitudinal and transverse specimens showed all three types of dilation curves at least once during the six cycles that they received. Fig. 2 is a sketch of the transverse specimen after

Jan 1, 1967

By Frederick L. Knouse

THE south border of Espirito Santo begins about 400 km. north of Rio de Janeiro and extends along the Atlantic Coast northward some 325 km. and inland 100 to 150 km. The area under consideration, where quartz crystal of strategic grades has been mined, extends from 19° to 21° and 30" south latitude; and from 40° to 41° and 30" west longitude. This includes the central part of Espirito Santo, chiefly south of the Rio Doce from the Atlantic ocean, and west across the border into Minas Gerais near the town of Aimores, in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais; Baixo Guandu, Santa Teresa, Santa Leopoldina, Colatina, Joao Neiva, Fundao and Domingo Martines, Espirito Santo (Fig. 1). During 1943 and the first half of 1944, this region accounted for approximately 3 to 5 per cent of the quartz crystal produced in Brazil. Shipments of crystal have been made chiefly by rail to Rio de Janeiro. This region is serviced by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Leopoldina to Rio de Janeiro through Vitoria; and by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Central do Brasil through Bello Horizonte, Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. The major deposits are accessible from the railheads by dirt roads, some being 5 to 30 km. off the road, reached by trail. In 1943 and the first half of 1944, the bulk of the production was from inter mountain marshes and adjoining hillside alluvial placer deposits in the zone surrounding the town of Santa Teresa. Most of these deposits were formed from the erosion of pegmatites, quartz veins and pockets in the gneiss, with minor quantities produced from miarolitic cavity fillings in the granitic rock. EARLY OPERATIONS Mining of quartz crystal in this region began in 1928, and has been stimulated by the market demand for military uses. Before 1936 little attention was given to it, either in Espirito Santo or eastern Minas Gerais. From 1936 to 1941 the Japanese sent agents to various points of production or potential production to acquire quartz through purchase. They bought crystal as small as 10 grams. Since 1941 only the United States and Great Britain have received quartz from Brazil. The United States purchases crystals of loo grams and larger for strategic purposes. The first known discoveries were made either in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais, or in Baixo Guandu, or Domingos Martines, Espirito Santo. Marketable quartz crystal was first found either in the massive quartz replacement veins of the Victor Hugo mine in the municipality of Domingo Martines, or in the large cores of quartz in the pegmatites near Baixo Guandu, extending into Minas Gerais. PRODUCTION The production of quartz in Espirito Santo from 1936 through 1941 as recorded

Jan 1, 1946

By Louis Moyd

The Concrete Research Division, U.S. Corps of Engineers, has developed a simple procedure for determining the coefficients of linear thermal expansion of rocks by means of resistance wire (SR-4) strain gauges. Gauges are cemented to the surfaces of specimens, which are then brought alternately to temperatures of 35OF and 1350F. Results are accurate to the seventh decimal place. IN the course of investigations of the thermal properties of various rocks proposed for use as aggregates in concrete structures, a relatively rapid method of determining coefficients of linear thermal expansion was required. A method which proved to be satisfactory for this purpose was developed in the petrographic laboratory of the Concrete Research Division, U.S. Corps of Engineers, at Clinton, Miss. The method is based on the fact that strain effects in a specimen can be determined by measuring variations in the resistance of an electrical conductor firmly cemented to the surface of the specimen. Equipment for the determination of strain, electrically, has been developed by the Baldwin-South-wark Division of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia. This equipment includes small strain gauges made of coils of resistance wire bonded between thin sheets of paper (SR-4 gauges), and a portable "Strain Indicator" which records variations in the length of the gauges in microinches per inch. Gauges of this type are now in general use for determinations of various mechanically-induced strains, but their use for the determination of coefficients of thermal expansion appears to be a new application. The advantages of the method are that the test specimens may be relatively small and require only a minor amount of preparation, that a large number of tests can be run at the same time, and that the installation and operation of the equipment is relatively simple. The method and equipment described are now in regular use for determining the coefficients of linear thermal expansion of rock samples submitted to this laboratory. Rocks which have been tested include granites, syenites, gabbros, and other igneous rocks, limestones and dolomitic limestones, sandstones, and quartzites. Specimen Preparation: To standardize the conditions of the tests, the rock specimens are sliced by diamond saw into slabs about 11/2x11/4 in. In the case of bedded or foliated rocks, three oriented slabs are cut from the same specimen, and represent, respectively, a direction in a plane of the bedding or foliation of the rock; a direction along the bedding or foliation and at a right angle to the first; and a direction across the planes of bedding or foliation. One of the large surfaces of each slab is lapped for a few minutes with No. 100 abrasive powder to remove saw scars and irregularities. The slabs are soaked in petroleum ether and then dried in an oven to remove all traces of oil picked up in the sawing

Jan 1, 1951