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By SME

"Comparison of Secondary Fe-Mn Oxides in Fracture Coating and Heavy-Mineral Concentrates as Sampling Media, Silver City Mining Region, New Mexico," a technical paper, appeared in the Aug. 1983 issue of the magazine. In Table 1, page 1182, the correct sequence of the first five metals in column 1 (Elements) should read: Zn, Pb, Cu, Fe, and Mn under "Central District" and Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu, and Mn under "Pinos Altos District." The published table shows the sequences transposed under the opposite districts. All other columns and sequences read correctly.

Jan 1, 1984

By Garry M. Hughes

Sherritt's new, 3000 tpd, copper- zinc Fox mine is situated 30 miles southwest of Lynn Lake. The copper-zinc orebody is part of a large body of massive and semi-massive sulfides consisting chiefly of pyrite; with chalcopyrite, sphalerite (containing 7-9s Fe) and pyrrhotite in varying proportions which occur within a series of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The average sulfide content is 67%. Higher zinc zones are masses of pyrite grains cemented by sphalerite with lower than average copper content. Zones higher in copper and lower in zinc are slightly more quartzose. Gold and silver are present in small amounts roughly proportional to the copper content. Surface diamond drilling indicated an orebody containing 12,269,000 tons grading 1.74% Cu and 2.35% Zn to the 2000 ft level. Underground drilling established the tonnage at 11,- 300,000 tons containing 1.96% Cu and 2.74% Zn.

Jan 4, 1972

By David R. Mitchell, Ernest M. Spokes

INFORMATION on magnetic properties of minerals other than magnetite is scanty and some- times erroneous. Often there is no information at all. W. R. Crane's table of tractive forces published in 1901 is still the best guide in the field, but Crane's data can be used as a guide only, since he ignored such important factors as impurities in the minerals, size, and packing effect. During the 1930's work by the U. S. Bureau of Mines added greatly to knowledge of the behavior of certain minerals in a magnetic field. The USBM bulletin gave for the first time complete magnetic characteristics for magnetite and fragmentary data for a few other minerals. The work reported here covers a study of the magnetic-susceptibility relationships of the wolf-ramite series of minerals and sphalerites as related to their chemical compositions. Theories are proposed to explain divergences found from commonly accepted beliefs.

Jan 3, 1958

If world oil prices stabilize at $ll/bbl, if the US decides on the "accelerated supply" case for domestic fuel resources, if investment capital is available, if environmentalists' demand become reasonable, if land withdrawals are halted, if government grants generous depletion allowances and fast depreciation write-offs, and if many other "iffy" conditions are met-then shale oil production may reach the 1-million-bpd level by 1985, according to the Project Independence Report. In the "base case" scenario, oil shale production would be, at best, about 250,000 bpd at $11 prices, and "much lower if expectations for $7 oil prices prevail." In this regard, the FEA study reflects the conclusion reached by companies engaged in oil shale development work. Thus, except for some new technological breakthrough in mining, the birth and growth of the US oil shale industry will occur only if oil prices stabilize at about $ll/bbl.

Jan 5, 1975

By Charles H. Morgan

THE case of Henry Cort comprises: (1) the nature of Cort's inventions;, (2) their value to England and to mankind,; (3) the remuneration received therefor by him or his family; and (4) the suitable permanent record and recognition of his services by the representatives of the art lie founded-a debt long over-due, and still unpaid. I. CORT'S INVENTIONS. Under this head, it is unnecessary here to enter into details. The facts have been repeatedly published, and a brief outline of them will be sufficient for my present purpose. . Henry Cort, born in 1740 at Lancaster, England, became a navy broker in. London about 1765, and gained from that business in about ten years. something more than £20,000, which lie devoted to perfecting the manufacture of iron, building a mill at Fontley, near Portsmouth, and prosecuting, between 1777 and 1783, the experiments which culminated in .his two patents, one for puddling iron and the other for shaping it by rolling between grooved rolls.: Careful study of the contemporary evidence, including Cort's specifications, the testimony (in act as well as word) of his business rivals, the public declarations of eminent authorities, and the history of the times, leaves no possible doubt that Cort was the real inventor, of

Mar 1, 1905

THE great development of the mines and metallurgical works of this country during the last few years, accompanied as it has been by the investment of enormous sums of money in purchasing lands, and in the erection of improvements, requires that advantage should be taken of the accumulated knowledge of engineers, superintendents, and' others, in mastering &he problems which are constantly presenting themselves for our action. Among those may be mentioned the consideration of more economical systems of mining in our coal and metal-liferous mines, improved methods of transportation above and below ground, unwatering and ventilating mines, the mechanical preparation of coal and other minerals, the various metallurgical processes, and, in fact, every question tending to the attainment of two great objects : 1st. The more economical production of the useful minerals and metals. 2d. The greater safety and welfare of those employed in these industries. In European countries, where the arts of mining and metallurgy have long been the subject of the most careful study, no means have been found so effectual in attaining the end above proposed as the free interchange of experience among those actually engaged in these industries, and this object has been accomplished, mainly, through the medium of institutes, associations or societies, composed of those engaged in these occupations, and by the periodical publication of essays or papers, communicated to such societies by their members. I t must be evident to all practical men that the interchange of the varied experience of those engaged in such occupation in this country could not fail to advance very materially the desired objects; it is, therefore, proposed to establish an American Institute of Mining Engineers, which will hold its meetings periodically in the great mining and metallurgical centers, where works of interest, such as mines, machine shops, furnaces, and other metallurgical works, can be inspected, and the members exchange their views, and consult for mutual advantage upon the difficulties encountered by each; these transactions or proceedings, when published, would form a most valuable and greatly-needed addition to our professional literature. I t is proposed that a meeting of those sympathizing with the object above mentioned shall be called for the purpose of organizing such an association, the place and time of meeting being Wilkes-Barre, Pa., and the month of April or May. Communications indicating the opinion and wishes of all, both as to these points, and also as to the organization and objects of the Institute, will be gladly received by any of the undersigned, and a notice of the date of meeting, which will be arranged to suit the greater number, will be duly communicated. Any

By Martin Coryell, Eckley Coxe, R. P. Rothwell

WILKES-BARRE, PA., April, 1871. THE great development of the mines and metallurgical works of this country during the last few years, accompanied as it has been by the investment of enor¬mous sums of money in purchasing lands, and in the erection of improvements, requires that advantage should be taken of the accumulated knowledge of engi¬neers, superintendents, and others, in mastering the problems which are con¬stantly presenting themselves for our action. Among those may be mentioned the consideration of more economical systems of mining in our coal and metal¬liferous mines, improved methods of transportation above and below ground, unwatering and ventilating mines, the mechanical preparation of coal and other minerals, the various metallurgical processes, and, in fact, every question tending to the attainment of two great objects 1st. The more economical production of the useful minerals and metals. 2d. The greater safety and welfare of those employed in these industries. In European countries, where the arts of mining and metallurgy have long been the subject of the most careful study, no means have been found so effectual in attaining the end above proposed as the free interchange of experience among those actually engaged in these industries, and this object has been accomplished, mainly, through the medium of institutes, associations or societies, composed of those engaged in these occupations, and by the- periodical publication of essays or papers, communicated to such societies by their members. It must be evident to all practical men that the interchange of the varied experience of those engaged in such occupations in this country could not fail to advance very materially the desired objects; it is, therefore, proposed to establish an American Institute of Mining Engineers, which will hold its meetings periodically in the great mining and metallurgical centres, where works of interest, such as mines, machine shops, furnaces, and other metallurgical works, can be inspected, and the members exchange their views, and consult for mutual advantage upon the difficulties encountered by each; these transactions or proceedings, when published, would form a most valuable and greatly-needed addition to our professional literature. It is proposed that a meeting of those sympathizing with the object above men¬tioned shall be called for the purpose of organizing such an association, the place and time of meeting being Wilkes-Barre, Pa., and the month of April or May. Communications indicating the opinion and wishes of all, both as to these points, and also as to the organization and objects of the Institute, will be gladly received by any of the undersigned, and a notice of the date of meeting, which will be arranged to suit the greater number, will be duly communicated. Any

Jan 1, 1873

By J. Phillip Neal, Kefton H. Teague, Carroll P. Rogers

Feldspars, the most abundant minerals of the igneous rocks, occur in numerous forms and mixtures. The feldspars of commercial significance are found in widely distributed pegmatites as large crystals usually free of iron-bearing impurities and thus suitable for hand-cobbing, and also in larger bodies where the ore contains various types of feldspar intermingled with quartz and relatively free of iron-bearing impurities, or at least readily unlocked from impurities present at relatively coarse mesh. The latter type of ore includes some pegmatites, and the "alaskite" bodies so common in the Spruce Pine district of North Carolina. On the west coast of the US and in Oklahoma there is-or has been-commercial recovery of natural feldspathic sand as a source of alumina in glass and ceramics. "Aplite" in commercial terminology is a light-colored igneous rock with a granitic composition and a fine sugary texture, often banded with readily removable iron impurities. Only one area in Virginia produces aplite for the glass industry; it is located near Montpelier in Hanover County. According to Deer et al. (1966) the word feldspar derives from the Swedish feldt or jolt (field) and "spath:" chunks of rock appearing in tilled ground overlying granite. Castle and Gillson (1960) indicate a Germanic origin, citing "spat," which is said to refer to any transparent or translucent material which is readily cleavable. The term "spar" has in the past been applied to minerals other than feldspar, such as barite, calcite, and fluorite. It is correct to call the latter "fluorspar." There is a true barium feldspar, but it is rare and of no present economic importance. What is recognized as feldspar or "spar" by present producers and consumers consists of three silicate minerals which, if pure, would have the formulas KA1Si3O8 (microcline or orthoclase), NaAlSi3O8 (albite), and CaAl2Si2O8 (anorthite). These are almost never found in pure form in nature, but occur together in great abundance in a three-component system. A considerable number of different combined ratios of these three exists, with the exception that isomorphism between potassium spar and calcium spar is very limited. User specifications for feldspar products are largely built around the prevalent naturally occurring ratios. Passages following will refer to "K-spar," "Naspar," or "Ca-spar." Nomenclature and Descriptive Terms Relating to both the mineralogy and the economics of feldspar are certain terms whose coverage it is useful to specify. Commercially, aplite is a feldspathic rock mined and beneficiated in one location in Virginia, in which both titanium and feldspar minerals are present-the latter now being the major, if not the only, economic product. Technically, the term aplite when applied to this rock is of questionable accuracy. But, in light of accepted commercial usage, the term will be here used to designate it. Regarding the Virginia rock, Ross (1941) is cited. Alaskite is another term requiring understanding if not precise use. A distinctive rock type customarily called by this name is found near Spruce Pine, Mitchell County, North Carolina. An important major feldspar source, it contains somewhat higher levels of plagioclase feldspar and quartz than alaskite as defined in the Glossary of Geology and Related Sciences, which states that `orthoclase, microcline, and subordinate quartz are the principal

Jan 1, 1983

By J. D. Pennock

About a year and a half ago, Mr. Morris, an engineer of the Solvay Process Company, was sent to Belgium and France to study the manufacture of coke in the Semet-Solvay ovens, which were in operation at Havre. With complete plans of construction and a good understanding of the methods of running the ovens, he returned to Syracuse. Work on twelve Semet-Solvay ovens was immediately begun. These ovens, with plant for crushing and washing coal, and the necessary condensers, scrubbers, and concentrator for the recovery of the byproducts are nearly finished, and will soon be in operation. As the work approached completion it became necessary to determine what coal should be used. Accordingly, a chemical investigation of the various bituminous coals was made. I. Investigation of Coals. The samples of coal taken for analysis were: I. A sample of Reynoldsville coal that had been exposed to the weather for a year; 11. Reynoldsville coal taken from a car direct from the mine; 111. Morris Run lump coal; IV. Morris Run fine coal; V. Coal from the Fairmount Coal and Coke Company; VI. A special enginecoal from Pardee colliery, Phillipsburg, Pa.; VII. South Fork, Pa., coal; VIII. Coal from Laceyville, Ill.; IX. Pittsburgh bituminous coal from Ocean mines (gas-coal); X. Steubenville, Ohio, coal; XI. Evansville, Indiana, coal; XII. Coal from the Ohio Coal Company. Proximate Analysis. I. 11, 111. IV. V. VI. Water at 90° C.,* ..................................... Volatile,. .. 31.14 33.00 17.73 18.12 37.20 23.86 Fixed Carbon,. . 64.49 58.07 71.92 71.89 56.68 73.00 Ash,. .. 4.37 8.93 10.35 9.99 6.12 3.14 Coke,. .. 68.86 67.00 82.27 81.88 61.88 76.80

Jan 1, 1893

By H. E. Stamm, H. H. Spain, R. C. Rumble

This paper presents a reservoir analyzer study of the performance of the Woodbine formation in the East Texas basin. The study was made possible by the compilation of available information on the configuration. thickness and the pressure drawdown of the formation. The investigation was made of the pressure variations in the basin incident to production from the several Woodbine reservoirs. In addition, the apparent compressibility of Woodbine water was evaluated so that the potential water yield of the formation could be determined. The distribution of permeability of the Woodbine sand and the interference between producing areas were also investigated. In conjunction with this basic study of the Woodbine sand, an acceptable match of the production-pressure relationship in the East Texas Field was established on the analyzer. INTRODUCTION When production is taken from a reservoir contiguous to an aquifer, the resultant pressure gradient causes a water influx into the reservoir. For some years it has been the practice to predict the performance of water drive reservoirs with mathematical equations that relate the water influx into reservoirs to their pressure behavior. A rigorous solution of these equations is quite complex: hence, the conventional method requires the simplifying assumptions that the formation have constant thickness, permeability and poiosity, and that it have a known and regular shape. It is necessary to use performance records of the reservoir in question to determine the equation constants that make the results of the mathematical calculations duplicate the reservoir history. The values of the constants determined in this manner sometimes differ so greatly from theoretical or measured values that the constants appear unreasonable. The equation constants comprise such factors as the thickness, porosity and permeability of the formation, and the viscosity and compressibility of water. Usually the thickness, porosity and viscosity are known within a reasonable degree of certainty. whereas the formation permeability and the water compressibility are known with considerably less certainty. Hence. permeability and compressibility values are arbitrarily selected that will make the mathematical equations duplicate the reservoir behavior. In many reservoir studies the value of the compressibility of water thus selected has exceeded the reported value by a factor of from severalfold to manyfold. Whether this excessive value results from the inadequacy of the mathematical approach to take into account the shape irregularities and the heterogeneities of the aquifer, or is due to some type of formation compaction and decrease of porosity has not been established. Because of the significance of the potential water yield of formations with reference not only to oil reservoirs but to water resources as well, it is very important that a representative value for the effective water compressibility be determined. One of the best known examples of a field for which it has been possible in the past to predict the future reservoir pressure is the East Texas Field. Until about 1943 it was possible by means of mathematical equations to duplicate past pressure behavior and to predict with a high degree of accuracy the reservoir pressure of the field. Since 1943, however, the calculated pressures have deviated progressively from the observed pressures to such a degree that in recent years, it has

Jan 1, 1951

By H. H. Spain, R. C. Rumble, H. E. Stamm

This paper presents a reservoir analyzer study of the performance of the Woodbine formation in the East Texas basin. The study was made possible by the compilation of available information on the configuration. thickness and the pressure drawdown of the formation. The investigation was made of the pressure variations in the basin incident to production from the several Woodbine reservoirs. In addition, the apparent compressibility of Woodbine water was evaluated so that the potential water yield of the formation could be determined. The distribution of permeability of the Woodbine sand and the interference between producing areas were also investigated. In conjunction with this basic study of the Woodbine sand, an acceptable match of the production-pressure relationship in the East Texas Field was established on the analyzer. INTRODUCTION When production is taken from a reservoir contiguous to an aquifer, the resultant pressure gradient causes a water influx into the reservoir. For some years it has been the practice to predict the performance of water drive reservoirs with mathematical equations that relate the water influx into reservoirs to their pressure behavior. A rigorous solution of these equations is quite complex: hence, the conventional method requires the simplifying assumptions that the formation have constant thickness, permeability and poiosity, and that it have a known and regular shape. It is necessary to use performance records of the reservoir in question to determine the equation constants that make the results of the mathematical calculations duplicate the reservoir history. The values of the constants determined in this manner sometimes differ so greatly from theoretical or measured values that the constants appear unreasonable. The equation constants comprise such factors as the thickness, porosity and permeability of the formation, and the viscosity and compressibility of water. Usually the thickness, porosity and viscosity are known within a reasonable degree of certainty. whereas the formation permeability and the water compressibility are known with considerably less certainty. Hence. permeability and compressibility values are arbitrarily selected that will make the mathematical equations duplicate the reservoir behavior. In many reservoir studies the value of the compressibility of water thus selected has exceeded the reported value by a factor of from severalfold to manyfold. Whether this excessive value results from the inadequacy of the mathematical approach to take into account the shape irregularities and the heterogeneities of the aquifer, or is due to some type of formation compaction and decrease of porosity has not been established. Because of the significance of the potential water yield of formations with reference not only to oil reservoirs but to water resources as well, it is very important that a representative value for the effective water compressibility be determined. One of the best known examples of a field for which it has been possible in the past to predict the future reservoir pressure is the East Texas Field. Until about 1943 it was possible by means of mathematical equations to duplicate past pressure behavior and to predict with a high degree of accuracy the reservoir pressure of the field. Since 1943, however, the calculated pressures have deviated progressively from the observed pressures to such a degree that in recent years, it has

Jan 1, 1951

By Society of Mining Engineers of AIME

An error has been noticed in one of the figures in the 1974 Jackling Lecture "The Henderson Ore Body-Elements of Discovery, Reflections" by Stewart R. Wallace, published in SME Transactions, Vol. 256, No. 3, September 1974, pp. 216-227. The horizontal scale shown on Fig. 5 of this article is incorrect. The horizontal and vertical scales should be equal, i.e., the horizontal distance shown as 1000 ft should be 2000 ft.

Jan 1, 1976

By Joseph D. Weeks

The primary problems of civilization are material ones; their answers are writ in fire. When these problems in their higher aspects have pressed for solution, it has been out of the burning bush that the Divine voice has spoken, or in the cloud and smoke that the Divine finger has traced the rules by which these problems shall be solved. It is with the material problems, however, that we, as engineers, have to deal.

Jan 1, 1896

By W. H. Bassett, C. H. Davis

ALTHOUGH brasses and bronzes have been made for ages, a systematic study of their physical properties has been carried out only during the years of the present century. Among these properties may be included those which are to be detected by means of microscopic examination; in other. words by the science of metallography. The earlier workers in this field, both in this country and abroad, gave their attention to steel. When the senior author explored the situation in 1902, there was little encouragement to be found in undertaking the study of the non-ferrous alloys. A start was made, and the metallography of the brasses and bronzes, as well as of the copper-nickel-zinc alloys developed materially under his direction. Annealing experiments were begun in 1902, and in the succeeding years the effect of temperature, and the influence of previous working, on the grain size of brass were studied. The conclusions so well known and widely published today were largely reached during those earlier years. . In 1905 the first complete annealing series were made. By this it is meant that brass and copper sheet, 5 B & S Nos. hard, was machined into tensile test specimens, then annealed under accurate control for 30 min. at temperatures up to the melting point of the material. Various determinations were made, including tensile strength and elongation in 2 in. There rapidly followed similar series on all of the copper-zinc alloys from 100 to 60 per cent. copper, on the bronzes, cupronickels, and on copper-zinc-nickel alloys. At this point there was published by Grard, in October, 1909,1 the very comprehensive and complete work on the tensile properties of cartridge brass, 90-10 copper-zinc, and electrolytic copper. The excellent photomicrographs in that paper illustrated the changes in structure produced by cold rolling as well as by annealing at different temperatures, but where Grard's work was confined to copper and to two alloys, the investigations in this laboratory have been over the entire fields of the commercial copper-zinc alloys, copper-tin alloys, representative copper-nickel and copper-nickel-zinc alloys as well as aluminum bronzes and others of a more special nature.

Jan 1, 1928

By G. D. Rieck, G. H. G. Vaessen, D. L. Vogel

Both doped and undoped tungsten single crystals exhibit hardness anisotropy with respect to the direction of testing in each of the crystallographic phes investigated. The hardness anisotropy of undoped single-crystal tungsten is rather pronounced in (001) and (110) planes but very minor in (111) planes. The anisotropy in (122) planes of the doped and drawn tungsten after recrystallization is in accordance with a previously published concept of a stringlike distribution of the doping material in the metal. ANISOTROPY in mechanical properties of single-crystal tungsten was investigated by Rose et al., Garlick and Probst,2 and Beardmore and Hull. 3 Although data on the Vickers microhardness of tungsten have been published (see, e.g., Boosz 4 and the references cited by him), no data on the microhardness anisotropy are available. We report, therefore, some of our own results on the microhardness and its anisotropy. The microhardness has been determined of the following samples. A) Polycrystalline tungsten samples taken from: 1) powder metallurgical tungsten "normally" doped with potassium-silicon-aluminum oxides (final contents inppm: K, 100; Si, 100; Al, 20; Cr, 20; Fe, 50; Mo, 400; Ni, 10) and in the form of: a) a 10-mm-diam swaged ingot annealed at 1600°C, the grain sizes varying between 15 and 250 p; b) a sheet rolled at about 800°C and recrystallized at 2000°C7 the grain sizes varying between 15 and 150 p; c) a 2-mm-diam swaged rod, as-worked, with elongated grains (average diameter of about 25 , lengths up to 1 mm); 2) undoped electron-beam-melted tungsten with very large grains (contaminations in ppm: K < 10; Fe < 20; Cr < 10; Cu < 0.1; Ni not detectable; inter-stitial~ not determined). B) Single-crystal samples taken from: 1) pure tungsten grown on a Pintsch wire by the van Arkel procedure (main contaminations inppm: Mo, 100; Si < 10; Cu and Fe, 2; A1 < 2; interstitials not determined); 2) zone-melted undoped tungsten (analysis as under A2); 3) large crystals in secondary recrystallized tungsten

Jan 1, 1969

By Milton Fies

ALTHOUGH pig iron from iron ore and red cedar charcoal preceded the mining of coal by many years, for tradition says that Alabama iron was used to shoe the horses of Andrew Jackson&apos;s soldiers, coal was not produced until 1830. In that year, coal was mined in Tuscaloosa County, in the vicinity of what is now the University of Alabama, and shipped on flat boats (obviously during the wet season, for there were many shoals) down the Warrior River to Mobile. About that time, the first railroad, the Decatur & Tecumseh, was being constructed in northern Alabama to overcome the obstructions to freight traffic caused by the now well-known Muscle Shoals in the Tennessee River. This railroad was patterned after a railroad at Mauch Chunk, Pa., which was used for hauling anthracite from the Panther Creek valley. The Alabama railroad, which required about four years to complete, was 46 miles long and was used solely for the transportation of cotton. Although it was a failure, it demonstrated the practicability of the undertaking, and the succeeding railroads, which were begun in 1834, 1848, 1852, and 1853, added immeasurably to the development of the coal resources of the state. Between the years 1830 and 1860, practically all the coal mined in the state was dug from the outcrop near the river or from the river beds, and shipped by boat to Mobile. Transporting coal down the Warrior River was one of great risk, required much skill, and frequently had heavy losses. It is recorded that this coal was sold to the gas company in Mobile in 1844; it was most likely mined from the Black Creek Seam. In 1914, on the completion of Lock 17, the Warrior River became a navigable stream from 9 miles above Cordova, Ala., to Mobile and offers a great opportunity for the future development of the coal resources of the state.

Jan 9, 1924

William H. Blauvelt, Syracuse, N. Y.:—Is the coal itself from which the briquettes are made of good quality for steam-ing-purposes? Mr. Parker :—It is an anthracite coal mined near Bank-head arid used on the Canadian Pacific railroad. It contains about 83 of carbon, 8 of ash, and 8 per cent. of volatile material. With regard to briquetting of a mixture of fine coal and coke-dust, I understand that a plant has been installed near Detroit in which coke is mixed with anthracite; also the plant of the United Gas Improvement Co. near Philadelphia is briquetting a mixture of anthracite coal, the resultant briquettes being used in the gas-retorts. Mr. Blauvelt:—The purpose of the Detroit briquette-plant of the Solvay Process Co. has been partly to use up the coke-breeze from the by-product ovens and partly to utilize the pitch. There is no necessity for mixing anthracite with the coke-breeze, but the supply of breeze is limited, and anthracite

Jan 1, 1909

By Stephen E. Merritt, John W. Straton, T. Carl Shelton

Surveying and mapping are used to locate and visually portray objects, lines, or areas in relation to a reference point or line. The actual making of the measurements to locate the objects and points falls under surveying while mapping is concerned with putting the survey information into a graphical form. Generally, the type or class of proposed survey depends on the precision required. Some surveys may need only approximate measurements which can be obtained by simply pacing or by using an ordinary measuring tape; others may require much accuracy, thus calling for the use of an engineer&apos;s transit or theodolite along with a graduated steel tape for horizontal measurements, or a level and a graduated rod for measuring vertical distances. Mapping is likewise dependent on accuracy requirements. For example, a general layout showing the relative position of surface facilities may not call for a large scale of dimension or great precision whereas for detailed work, a large scale plus care in plotting points and drawing lines and curves are important factors. SURVEYING METHODS There are many kinds or types of surveying methods. Some examples include : land surveying for determining boundaries of land areas; route surveying for locating roads, highways, right-of-way, and haulways; city surveying for laying out lots, streets, and alleys; and mining surveying for projecting mine openings and locating mining operations. See Fig. 1. There are other types of surveying than those named, but in general, the type of method to be used will depend on the purpose for which the survey is to be made.

Jan 1, 1981

By H. M. Chance

In recent years an important function of the mining engineer has been the appraisal of the value of mining-properties required by those planning consolidations of a number of&apos; individual operations. In no field of productive industry have the economic results attainable by consolidation been more clearly shown than in the mining-regions of the United States. In many important mining-centers unification of ownership of the most valuable properties has already partially or completely been attained, and, in other districts, projected absorptions and consolidations await only favorable financial conditions for their consummation. The iron-ore districts of the Lake Superior region, the coal-mines of Colorado, of Wyoming and of Utah, the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania, the Connellsville coking-coal mines, and large areas of bituminous coal-land in Pennsylvania, in Ohio, in the Indian Territory and in other portions of the United States, are now largely controlled by a few corporations operating on a large scale, or by a number of corporations working in harmony because of an affiliation and interleaving of interests. The tact of keen financiers and the diplomacy of men of great administrative ability are the chief operative forces in conceiving and accomplishing such consolidations, but in formulating and maturing them, the services of the mining engineer are often required to supply the facts upon which they must be based. For this purpose the expert is expected to furnish full and complete reports covering the quantity of ore, coal or other mineral available, its value per ton, cost of mining and treatment, etc. In reporting upon gold-, silver-, lead-, zinc-, copper- or iron-

Jan 1, 1905

Raphael PUmpelly, who became a member of the Institute in 1871, the year of its organization, and retained his membership for a long period, died at his home in Newport, R. I., Aug. 10, 1923. He is survived by a son, Raphael, Jr., and by two daughters, one of whom is the wife of Prof. Henry L. Smyth, of Harvard. Doctor Pumpelly was born in Oswego, N. Y., in 1835. He studied sciences and mining engineering in Paris and at Freiberg, later taking his Doctor&apos;s degree at Princeton. He was Professor of Mining at Harvard from 1866 to 1873. Doctor Pumpelly made geological explorations in many lands. In 1861-63, he conducted a scientific exploration for the Japanese government, and for two years thereafter carried on researches in central, western, and northern China and Mongolia. In 1864-65, he undertook a voyage of exploration across the Gobi desert, returning to Europe through Siberia. He was State Geologist of Michigan from 1869 to 1871; Director of the Missouri Geological Survey from 1871 to 1873; and Chief of Division, U. S. Geological Survey, directing the mineral industries division of the tenth census. He organized and directed the Northern Transcontinental Survey, 1881-84; directed the explorations inaugurating the iron ore industry of most of the ranges of Michigan and Western Ontario, 1897-1901; initiated and directed a physical-geographical and archeo-logical exploration of Central Asia under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 19034.2.

Jan 1, 1924