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By NA UMC

Abstract Booklet

Dec 2, 2023

Welina mai to the 40th Underwater Mining Institute, UMI 2011 - Marine Minerals: Recent Innovations in Technology. Since the first conference in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1970, the UMI Founder Professor Robby Moore always insisted on actively seeking the participation of industry, academia, and government. History has proven the wisdom of this approach, which is probably the key to its survival for so many years. The UMI is very much influenced by the cyclical pressures of the minerals commodity markets. When minerals demand and prices are rising rapidly, industrial participation in the Institute dominates the agenda, and participants share optimistic and aggressive views of the commercial prospects of the day. When metals prices are falling and world economies lethargic, academic experts continue to provide guidance and breakthroughs in the concepts and practices of exploration, technology, and environmental protection. Throughout the ups and downs, government participants provide a stabilizing force with conservative and environmentally sensitive policy statements, patient development efforts with long-term objectives, authoritative resource assessments and, sometimes, much needed regulatory clarity.

Jan 1, 2011

By Tetsuo Yamazaki

Manganese nodules on deep ocean floors have continuously received attention as potential sources for strategic metals such as Co, Ni, Cu, and Mn, due to their vast distribution and relatively higher metal concentrations (Mero, 1965; Cronan, 1980). Several registered Pioneer Investors have already identified promising sites in deep-sea regions for manganese nodule mining (ISA, 1998), and appropriate mining technologies have been developed during the last thirty years by the international consortium and several nations (Welling, 1981; Kaufman et al., 1985; Bath, 1989; Charles et al., 1990; Yang and Wang, 1997; Yamada and Yamazaki, 1998; Hong and Kim, 1999; Muthunayagam and Das, 1999). The mining feasibility for manganese nodules, including an economic evaluation, has been examined in detail by some researchers (Andrews et al., 1983; Hillman and Gosling, 1985; Charles et al., 1990; Soreide et al., 2001).

Jan 1, 2011

By Daniel Brutto

Environmental considerations are a key driver within the marine mining consenting process across different national and international legislative regimes and are critical in shaping the global public perception of the industry. As a result, it is vital that mining companies seeking to operate within marine environments establish a robust understanding of the sensitivities of the seabed environments in which they are active, the impacts of their activities and the ability of the environment to recover from these impacts. The significant risks of failing to do so include an inability to either obtain or maintain operating permits. The risks can be mitigated by the common application of existing seabed biological expertise in baseline assessment and monitoring. The key ingredients of a fit-for-purpose, cost-effective seabed ecological assessment include early consideration of ecological issues within the project life-cycle through undertaking detailed desk-top studies as-wellas the multiple-use of data that have been acquired as a consequence of prospecting processes, with such data including remote acoustic data, seabed imagery and sediment samples. These data can be used to inform the design of robust benthic baseline surveys which provide adequate information on the ecological character of the environment in question and habitats and species of conservation importance - decreasing project risk and increasing the likelihood of securing consent.

Sep 14, 2011

By Georgy Cherkashov, Livia Ermakova

Active development of the exploration and further exploitation of deep-sea minerals requires special emphasis on the protection of the marine environment. The complexity of this subject lies in the fact that potential impact and effects of future mining activity are not completely known. One of the main sources of potential impact near the seafloor, as it expected, would be a generation of sediment plumes, their dispersion and redeposition of sediment. Meanwhile, their dimensions, rates of dispersion and redeposition are a big issue. Other plumes are expected in the surface layer as a result of discharges of processing waters and particles after sorting on board of mining vessel, and their features are also not clear. At the same time, understanding of these aspects would be crucial for definition of environment impact area, delineation and designation of different types of protected areas (Areas of Particular Environmental Interest, Impact and Preservation Reference Zones) and future assessment of environmental impacts. Attempts to address these issues demonstrated wide variations between the data of field experiments on the one hand and the results of analytical and numerical models on the other. According to in situ measurements, plumes were detected at a distance vary from one to less than 20 km [e.g., Burns et al., 1980; Sharma et al., 2001; Nautilus Minerals, 2008 etc.], whilst some models show results up to 100 km [Rolinski S. et al., 2001] and more. It seemed that results of in-situ experiments are preferable, but they were not many indeed. However, these data were used in different investigations rather widely, but their focus, as far as we know, was not on the matters related directly with plumes.

Jan 1, 2018

By Leonhard Weixler

The Bauer company was founded in 1790 by coppersmith Sebastian Bauer in Schrobenhausen, a small town north-west of Munich. The original workshop business carried out works including repairs to church roofs and brew kettles. Later the company expanded its operations to encompass water pipe installation, which it continued through to the 1980s. In addition to installing water pipes it then also began drilling wells, which were sometimes constructed using very simple methods, such as tripod frames (Figure 1).

Jan 1, 2011

By In Kwon Um

The XRF Core-Scanner system performs non-destructive analysis of elements from Mg to U, in concentrations of ppm levels on split cores with digital images. Using the AVAATECH XRF Corescanner system, we conducted high resolution element analysis of deep sea sediment cores from Clarion-Clipperton fracture zone of the northeastern Pacific to reveal recent environmental changes. Comparison of data estimated by the XRF core scanner with ICP-AES showed relatively weak correlation coefficients except Mn contents. Down-core variations of most elements seem to be matched with each other and reflect changes of sediment colors. Especially Mn/Al ratio significantly change at distinct color boundaries. The variations of Mn/Al ratio with sediment colors are suggestive of changes in redox condition and further divided into two types probably affected by activities of benthic organisms. Be isotope age datings of select core (BC08-02-13) indicate that the color boundaries are approximately coincident with late Pliocene and Pleostocene also early Pliocene and late Pliocene boundary. Keywords: XRF core scanner, High resolution, C-C zone

Jan 1, 2011

By David Heydon

NAUTILUS MINERALS is a leader in the commercial exploration for and evaluation of seafloor massive sulfide (?SMS?) deposits. Nautilus has exploration licences covering 15,000 sq km of seafloor in Papua New Guinea and is evaluating other areas in the Western Pacific. The Nautilus Western Pacific Gold-Copper project is an interesting case study of the interaction of the disciplines of Science, Engineering and Environmental Science to solve and attend to the challenges of a project without precedence. The Science books of geology and marine biology with respect to seafloor massive sulfides are still being written or at best are thin volumes with recognition still we know very little at this time. Science?s early discoveries and study of these mineral processes on the seafloor provided invaluable data from which to develop an exploration strategy and the genesis of Nautilus itself. The Engineering required for development of such deposits is a combination of yet to be tested ?theory and engineering principles? and adaptation of best practice from other fields such as oil/gas and telecommunication cable laying. The Environmental guidelines for exploring these deposits, let alone mining them, is at the moment still being debated by a panel of experts chosen by the International Seabed Authority.

Jan 1, 2005

By Raymond Kaufman

While there is no immediate worldwide shortage of hard minerals, the consumption of natural resources is constantly increasing, and there are ominous predictions of shortages to come. Means of meeting rapidly increasing demands are being implemented. These include such methods as exploration and discovery of new ore bodies, development of new mines, increasing production at existing mines, working or reopening known deposits of lower grade ore and tailings, recycling old materials, and developing more efficient and less wasteful processes to convert ores and metals into useful products. The United States, although itself mineral-rich, depends in large measure on imports for many key minerals and basic materials derived therefrom. According to the Department of the Interior, the U. S. depends upon imports for more than half of its supply of six of the basic thirteen raw materials required by any industrialized society - aluminum, chromium, manganese, nickel, tin, and zinc. By 1985 the country will also depend upon imports for more than half of its iron and tungsten, and by the year 2000 imports will have to supply more than half of the copper, potassium, and sulfur that it requires.

Jan 1, 1975

By Hjalmar Thiel

Issues of deep-seabed mining are discussed since four decades and extensive efforts have been invested in oceanographic studies related to environmentally sound harvesting of polymetallic nodules. Because mining on the deep seafloor seems to range from large-scale, two-dimensional dredging or scooping up of the ore from the uppermost surface sediment layer to more localized drilling or deeper digging into a three-dimensional ore body, it appears to be justified to reconsider some concepts for environmental impact evaluation. Based on the experience gained during preceding years in environmental studies related to polymetallic nodule mining, some interrelated hypotheses and proposals will be presented. It is suggested that these proposals be considered in future plans for environmental impact evaluation and that observations on community re-establishment be conducted before massive sulphide mining or other ore extractions enter the commercial mining phase.

Aug 24, 2006

By Tetsuo Yamazaki

Manganese nodules, seafloor massive sulfides, and cobalt-rich manganese crusts in deep-sea areas have been considered as future metal sources (Mero, 1965; Halbach, 1982; Lenoble, 2000). Manganese nodules were the first recognized deep-sea mineral resource and many efforts concentrated on the R&D of mining systems (Welling, 1981; Herrouin et al., 1989; Yamada and Yamazaki, 1998) and assessment of environmental impacts (Burns et al., 1980; Foell et al., 1990; Yamazaki and Kajitani, 1999). No mining venture, however, has been active for this potential resource. The reason is that the rate of world economic growth has been slower than anticipated in 1960s. During the 10 year period of 1994-2003 (Fig. 1), on the other hand, there was about a 33% increase in the world copper demand. Of that increase, about 60% was consumed by China. Most of China?s increased copper demand took place over the final 4-5 years of that period. The growth is expected to continue for several years, and in 10 years or sooner the same situation is expected for India. Copper is the third metal in global demand, but its small abundance in the Earth?s crust is not well recognized (Table 1). From the production rate and the abundance, a copper shortage, or crisis, has a high probability than the other metals. Japan has no domestic copper resources and needs a counter measure for this potential coming copper shortage. Fortunately, Japan has a manganese nodule mining claim in the Clarion-Clipperton nodule field, Kuroko-type massive seafloor sulfide deposits in the Okinawa Trough and Izu-Ogasawara areas, and cobalt-rich manganese crusts around Okinotori-Shima and Marcus Islands. We need to re-evaluate their potential as copper resources and to realize their development.

Jan 1, 2005

By Georgy Cherkashov, Tamara Stepanova, Anna Firstova

INTRODUCTION High tellurium contents in the ancient volcanogenic massive sulfides (VMS) and modern seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) have been reported by V.Maslennikov (Maslennikov et al., 2013). However findings of tellurium minerals in SMS are rather rare. The only reported coloradoite and bi-melonite, have been found in massive sulfides from Rainbow hydrothermal field (Fouquet, 2010). Here we present data about Te - minerals in sulfide chimneys of different ages (up to 84.7 kyr - Cherkashov et al., 2010 ) from Semyenov-2 hydrothermal field. The obtained results The Semyenov hydrothermal cluster was discovered and studied in the course of cruises 30 and 32 of R/V Professor Logachev (2007 and 2009) at 13º31´ N, MAR. This area is associated with an oceanic core complex and associated with serpentinized gabbro- peridotites and basalts. Plagiogranites and tonalites have been dredged on seafloor in the Semyenov cluster area (Cherkashov et al., 2013; Pertsev et al., 2012). In total, 25 sulfides samples have been studied. The major and minor mineralogical phases were identified using reflected light microscope. Major element compositions of ore- forming minerals were analyzed on a Hitachi S3400N scanning electron microscope at the Geomodel Center, St. Petersburg State University (St. Petersburg, Russia) with an AzTec Energy 350 (EDX) detector and an INCA 500 (WDX) detector.

Jan 1, 2018

By Julian Malnic

Transplanting the steps used in exploring and developing mineral deposits on land into the marine environment will help developers. While familiar to oil and gas explorers and many other sea-based industries, the marine environment is so alien to the 90s terrestrial miner that the phrase ?terrestrial mines in the sea? is useful for reinforcing the fundamental parallels in mining sulphides at sea and on land. As on land, the processes of ?pre-feasibility study? and ?feasibility study? will determine the economics of mining a deposit. For many, the step into the sea can detract from the need to follow these familiar and recognised steps used when any new deposit is found on land. The technology to mine sulphides in the 1500 to 2000 m depth range exists. Currently, it is not found in a single, integrated and commercially available system but every element available to build such as system is. Transplanting the thinking of the leaders of the terrestrial mining industry into the sea will perhaps be the greatest challenge and reinforcing the basic steps of discovery - pre-feasibility through to feasibility is the best way to achieve this. After all on land one doesn?t ask ?Can we profitably mine it?? before one can authoritatively answer ?What have we found??. Research by Nautilus Minerals Corporation suggests that the mining of seafloor massive sulphides (SMS) will not only be profitable but potentially lower in both capital and operating costs than prevail in most terrestrial deposits. Nautilus is also acutely aware that with the first SMS deposits under title, it will be setting the standards for seafloor mining into the new millenium. Indeed, we have trained on us not only the eyes of the mining industry waiting to see if SMS deposits really do offer radically better returns, but other stakeholders of the sea and the capital markets. Mistakes by any SMS developer could land all developers in ?hot water?. The rush to exploit our deposits for economic gain will be tempered by ensuring there is adequate public debate and consultation for our environmental code. Failure in any facet of a marine mining development could set back the move to the ocean floor.

Jan 1, 1998

By Graham Singleton

Around 235 million tonnes of marine aggregates have been dredged in the last decade from the UK continental shelf alone. The current distribution of marine aggregate production licence areas in North West Europe reflects the relationship between a variety of factors such as the natural distribution of deposits of sand and gravel, the demand for aggregates, the technical capabilities of the dredging fleet and environmental considerations. Whilst the sand and gravel deposits targeted by the marine aggregate industry are generally relict and therefore geographically fixed, the remaining factors have evolved over time and will continue to do so in future. Applications for new licences must not only reflect the current situation, but anticipate future trends. The main markets for marine aggregates are the construction industry, centred around the larger centres of population and coastal protection projects along the coastline of Europe. The aggregate industry as a whole does not create demand but simply meets it. Many factors influence the overall demand for aggregates and guidance exists for those in authority and industry who need to plan for the supply of aggregates. Adequate supplies should be maintained at the best balance of social, environmental and economic cost, whilst ensuring that extraction and development are consistent with the principles of sustainable development.

Jan 1, 2004

By Julian Malnic

The emerging marine minerals exploration and mining industry is currently focused mainly on the technical elements for its success such as developing exploration and mining technologies. However, in one sense, the technical challenges are quite soluble whereas those arising in the fields of the environment and public opinion could present this new generation of miners with problems that are far more difficult to overcome. One need only look at the issues currently faced by mining projects on land to see how powerful the new forces of so-called ?civil society? are in stopping mineral developments in many countries. From the geographic viewpoint, there are many countries but there is just one ocean, so the impacts experienced by any one operation are likely to have pervasive repercussions throughout the industry. A well-oiled NGO development protest lobby will see leverage in resisting this new industry and will seize on the single-ocean angle. The Australian Minerals Industry has established a voluntary Code for Environmental Management that provides an active and valuable model for satisfying the ?court of public opinion? and in delivering economic results to industry that are in current jargon, sustainable. An explanation of the Code for Environmental Management, and the reasons behind 44 companies representing more than 300 operations and 85% of Australia?s sizeable mineral production being signatory to it will be given. Participants see it as a means to future shareholder wealth.

Jan 1, 2000

By Valery M. Yubko

During the last ten years seven applications for nodule-bearing areas of the World Ocean Floor International Region (IR) have been made by national companies of Russia (Yuzhmorgeologiya), France (IFREMER/AFERNOD), Japan (DORD), India (The State Department of Sea Resources Development), China (COMRA), Korea (KORDI) and the Interokeanmetal Joint Organization (IOM) of some East European countries and have been registered by the Preparatory Commission of the United Nations International Seabed Authority (ISA). Besides these groups registered within Resolution 11 of the Final Act of the III United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea there are four international consortia registered in the USA [Kennecott (KCON), Ocean Mining Associates (DMA), Ocean Management Incorporated (OMI), and Ocean Minerals Company (OMCO)], which have interest in areas in the IR and can be considered as potential applicants. All registered areas (with the exception of the Indian Ocean) including the areas of potential applicants and also 6 areas, reserved for the ISA are located in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the Pacific Ocean. If within each area not less than one deposit of polymetallic nodule-bearing ores can be discovered, then, the total number of such deposits, for the present moment, is 20.

Jan 1, 1994

By Richard H. T. Garnett

Marine mining on the continental shelf was first attempted in 1900 for gold off the beaches of Nome, Alaska. Attempts continued until 1990 with cutter-suction, airlift and bucket-ladder dredges. Offshore Thailand profitable production of tin resulted from clamshell, bucket-ladder and trailing suction hopper dredges. Today in Indonesia numerous bucket-ladder dredges continue to mine tin. Off the coast of Namibia and South Africa nearly a dozen large and medium sized vessels are engaged in diamond production. The obvious risk results from the working environment. Vessels and lives have been lost in the past. At best the availability of mining equipment is reduced. Leaving aside the marketing and financing aspects, otherwise the most important risks are technical. They manifest themselves as diamond production short-falls with obvious financial consequences. Bias and deficiencies in sampling equipment and procedures may result in misleading grade estimates, even serious under-estimation. Inadequate sampling in terms of sample support and density may result in over-optimistic grade determinations, especially if under-sized mining blocks are outlined. Quantitative measurement of the geotechnical characteristics of the sediments to be mined is an essential stage in a feasibility study. Without a full understanding of the bedrock profile and the overlying sediments the ease, completeness and speed of excavation during the mining process cannot be properly estimated. Both historically and at present the greatest negative discrepancies from production estimates result, not from grade shortfalls, but from significantly lower mining rates than thought possible by the operators. The learning curve in marine, production mining is steeper and longer than is generally recognised by newcomers to the industry. Examples are provided from tin, gold and diamond mining experiences.

Jan 1, 1998

By Simon McDonald

The Neptune Group was established in 1999 to apply for exploration permits within New Zealand’s 200nm EEZ. These applications were to investigate and commercialise hydrothermal Seafloor Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits identified by international researchers and to locate others. SMS are volcanically related seafloor accumulations of copper, lead and zinc with high levels of gold and silver. Neptune has three granted exploration licenses within the New Zealand EEZ and has application in other jurisdictions. Neptune undertook the world’s first commercial drilling exploration work of SMS in December of 2005.

Aug 24, 2006

By Burrows D. R.

Metal-rich sediments precipitating from hot saline brine pools were first discovered in 1965 in the Red Sea.1-2 The subsequent discovery of high temperature black smokers and associated massive sulphides in 1977 at latitude 21oN on the East Pacific Rise3 came more as a confirmation than a revelation. Formation of massive sulphides through precipitation from circulating sea-water had been predicted by Oftedahl in 19584, and the mechanisms well evaluated in basaltic-hosted Cyprus-type 5 and in Kuroko-type deposits.6,7 Sea-floor exploration from 1977 through the 1980?s in sediment-starved mid-oceanic ridge (MOR) settings had little impact on land-based exploration. This is primarily because: a) MOR spreading centres were recognized as poor analogies to even Cyprus-type basalt-hosted deposits; b) their preservation potential was limited due to rapid oxidation and c) the metallic deposits studied were small and therefore not directly comparable to the far larger ore bodies on land. More recently underwater mineral deposit research has focused in a variety of back-arc environments associated with felsic submarine volcanism, environments more similar to those predicted for the formation of Kuroko-type deposits (e.g. Okinawa Trough, 8 Lau Basin, 9 Manus Basin, 10 Aeolian arc, 11). Most studies, while scientifically interesting, were hampered, in general, by a lack of good descriptive data, a reliance on isolated grab samples, and a lack of sub-surface observations. This research has therefore had only limited direct impact on exploration strategies with the possible exception of research conducted in areas where faulting provided enhanced vertical exposures. 12

Jan 1, 2011

By NA UMC

Abstract Booklet

Dec 1, 2022