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By Brett P. Spigarelli

To meet the growing need for CO2 capture and storage technology, Michigan Technological University is researching CO2 capture and storage using alkali solutions1. Without implementing emission controls, world energy emissions will rise from 29.7 billion t in 2007 to 42.4 billion t in 2035. The first objective of the project was to determine the optimal amount of alkali in solution for CO2 absorption. This was accomplished using theoretical equilibrium calculations and experimental absorption data for alkali solutions of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 weight %. As the % alkali in solution increased, so, too, did the ionic strength of the solution. Theoretical calculations took into account the effect increasing ionic strength will have on the solubility of gaseous CO2. The calculations assumed negligible formation of H2CO3, constant temperature and constant pressure. In the experimental setup, a 16% CO2 /balance air gas mixture was bubbled through an Erlenmeyer flask filled with an alkali solution. The gas exiting the flask was fed to a gas analyzer to record the % CO2 in the exhaust gas stream. The % CO2 absorbed was taken as the % CO2 in the exhaust gas minus the % CO2 in the feed. Theoretical calculations found that as the % alkali in solution increases, the solubility of CO2 decreases. This was verified by experimental data, which found that a 2% alkali solution, by weight, was the ideal solution for CO2 absorption. Current research is focused on using the 2% alkali solution for permanent storage of CO2 via mineral carbonation to produce a value-added product.

May 1, 2012

By E. Kenneth Siroky

The concept of ultrasonic measurement was originally applied to marine operations. Sonar . . . standing for Sounding, Navigation and Ranging, was developed for military uses. Today Sonar has become very important to the fishing fleets and marine construction industries where its applications cover a wide range of uses our company, in addition to the inair ultrasonic equipment as discussed in this paper, is also deeply involved in marine sonar and works primarily with oceanographic research and fishing industries. Ultrasonics, by simple definition, are sound waves beyond the audible range of the human ear and are generally accepted to be waves over 20,000 cycles per second. When applied to level measurement, the principles of ultrasonics are basically quite simple. A sound pulse is initiated at a point in time and the time interval for the echo from that pulse to return can be interpolated into distance. The speed of sound in air under standard conditions is approximately 1,100 feet per second, or if converted into more meaningful information as related to distance measurement, the time required for sound to travel one foot round trip is 1.78 milliseconds. An early application for ultrasonic level monitoring equipment was in large grain elevators. Prior to ultrasonics, the common practice of inventory measurement was to have an employee walk around the top of these large grain elevators, which are often over 100 feet above ground level, and drop a weighted rope or chain down into the silo to determine the level of the grain. Needless to say, this was a slow process and could be extremely unsafe, especially during windy and snowy weather conditions. An alternate

Jan 1, 1971

By James A. Martin

In relating geology and mineral resources to the nongeologist engaged in planning and zoning, a major hurdle to overcome is often the concept of natural resources. Statements listing such "resources" generally include and often may he limited to such items as "open space", "buildings of historical value", "forest and wilderness areas", and "sites of natural beauty" but seldom mention minerals even where they are of significant economic importance to the area. Unfortunately, mention of mineral resources is often limited to statements calling for tight controls on mining to prevent "ravaging of the land". While, the concept of sequential use involving mining is sometimes acknowledged, it is frequently done in such a manner that this approach is discouraged. In the conflict for land between urban development, recreational open space and mineral extraction, far too often the mineral industry will be the loser. In Missouri, there have long been continuing requests for geologic and resource data for planning purposes from city and county government and from Federal agencies for inclusion in the various river basin studies and Soil Conservation Service projects. These reports vary in detail from concise statements of the geology of an area to rather lengthy reports on mineral and water resources, bed rock and engineering geology characteristics. In most cases, these reports as written were directed to a geologically-oriented reader. Our initial approach to presenting geologic data to the land-use planner was in the area of engineering geology with attempts to show the limitations that bedrock and soil conditions can place on development. The first formal reports, engineering geology studies of urban areas, were released by the Missouri Geological Survey in

Jan 1, 1976

By Joseph B. Gillenwater

Miss Gertrude Carey lived next to us in Martinsburg, West Virginia for several years. She was a retired school teacher. She was also a cousin to Messers Dan and Joe Baker who owned and operated Standard Lime and Stone Company, a predecessor of Martin Marietta Corporation. She-was well acquainted with the Baker family and their history. Here is one of the legends she told my wife, Jean, and me. The Bakers were originally Tanners. They had a tannery near Frederick, Maryland. There were several boys in the family and when they were grown each man had specified responsibilities. Will Baker was assigned the duty of locating, buying, and transporting tanbark and lime. As he traveled through Maryland, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia to locate and buy tanbark, he also talked the farmers out of some pieces of lime, which the farmers had produced in holes dug and filled with layers of limestone and wood. Will Baker took the lime and soaked a piece of hide in the milk of lime. If the lime did not spot the hide, Will Baker would get the farmer to burn some lime for him, and further tests would be made. If these tests were good - the Bakers bought the land. They eventually discovered that the limestone that would make lime that wouldn't spot the hide would also be suitable for producing steel. They began producing lime just outside Harpers Ferry, West Virginia in pots and upright kilns. That stone too small for the kilns was just perfect for railroad ballast. Now you know how "Baltimore Blue Bloods" got together!!

Jan 1, 1979

Ground falls (roof and rib) have historically been responsible for about 50% of all fatalities in bituminous underground coal mines. In some recent years, the number of ground fall fatalities has approached zero, indicating that significant progress has been made. On the other hand, last year?s Crandall Canyon twin mine disasters, in which 9 miners perished in violent coal bumps, provided a stark reminder that complacency is premature. One important success has been a great reduction in the number of miners killed inby roof supports. Throughout the 1990?s these accounted for nearly half of all roof fall fatalities, but there have just been two inby incidents in the past 5 years. Progress has also been made in pillar recovery. Safer mining technologies have reduced the number of fatal incidents, but some recent failures have underlined the need for careful management of the retreat mining process. On the other hand, more than 400 miners continue to be injured each year by rock falling from between supports, and 100 more are injured by rib falls. Together, these two categories also account for a large percentage of recent ground fall fatalities. Available technologies such as roof screen, rib bolting, and inside control roof bolters could dramatically reduce injury and fatality rates if they were used more widely. Further advances in these areas will likely be the next big advance in ground control safety. Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this report have not been formally disseminated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and should not be construed to represent any agency determination or policy.

Jan 1, 2009

By P. Schiavi

A trend towards the independent verification of sustainable development reporting and assessment using third party certification can be discerned in the global minerals industry. Various codes that provide for the third party assessment and certification of performance against a range of externally developed sustainability indicators are being adopted by minerals companies, and there is also considerable activity in the broader area of third party assurance. Using a sociological approach, this paper examines the reasons why third party certification schemes are appearing in the minerals industry to address sustainable development imperatives in preference to other forms of regulation, and considers the broader implications of this trend. Data are drawn from a series of qualitative, in-depth interviews conducted with some of the key players in the development and adoption of certification schemes in the minerals industry, with executive managers of a range of large mining corporations, with representatives of global non-governmental organizations that are active in mining issues, and with government officers responsible for the regulation of mining corporations in Australia. Factors responsible for the emergence of the new certification schemes include: increasing demands from stakeholders for greater credibility in reporting against sustainable development indicators; broader contextual factors including globalization and neoliberal policies; and issues relating to trust and risk. Using insights from our research, and the work of others in this field, we identify some of the critical features of a credible third party certification scheme, and note some of the challenges for the design and implementation of such schemes. We conclude by discussing some of the broader implications of third party certification as an emerging form of regulation in the minerals industry.

Jan 1, 2007

By Allan J. Breitenbach

The heap leaching process has developed into a low-cost method for recovering copper, gold and silver from large and small deposits of low-grade ore. The earliest known heap leaching process with chemicals occurred in about 1752 and is attributed to Spanish miners percolating acid solutions through large heaps of oxide copper ore on the banks of the Rio Tinto (Ran Zyl, et al., 1988). In 1969, US Bureau of Mines research¬ers proposed the use of dilute alkaline cyanide solutions as a low-cost means for recovering gold values from low-grade ore containing micrometer-sized particles of gold (Miners News, 1991). The modern-day heap leaching process typically involves the percolation of leach solutions through controlled lifts of stacked, low-grade ore (crushed, aggomerated or run-of-mine) in a heap for chemical extraction of precious and base metals into solution (Fig. 1). The enriched (pregnant) solution is collected by gravity flow in lined basins, sumps and ponds for processing and recovery of the target metals (copper, gold and silver). The barren solution from the recovery facilities is recirculated to the heap, along with chemical reagents and makeup water, for containment of all process solutions in an enclosed and environmentally sound system. This involves the use of low-permeability liner systems beneath the heap leach stacks to maximize solution recovery and protect the underlying ground water (Fig. 1). This article discusses the typical heap leach liner systems currently used by mining companies in North America. The most successful heap leach pad liner systems from past precious metal operations generally include an underlying, low-permeability soil bedding material; a geomembrane liner, and an overlying protective cover fill.

Jan 1, 1994

By L. A. Romo, J. A. Ferrer

INTRODUCTION The principle line of the Caracas Metro is located generally along the most important east-west traffic corridor of the city from the yards and shops in Propatria at the western extremity to Petare, and eventually beyond to Palo Verde at the eastern end, a route distance of 21 kilometers. There will be 23 stations along the alignment, underground, at grade and elevated, and the line is forecast to handle 1,209,100 passengers daily by the year 2000 with a travel time of 29 minutes between Propatria and Petare. This principle line was divided into three sections for design purposes: Propatria-Fuerzas Armadas, Section I, Fuerzas Armadas-Chacaito, Section II and Chacaito-Petare, Section III. These sections were further subdivided into subsections for construction purposes. The Venezuelan Government, through its Caracas Metro Office in the Ministry of Public Works, awarded design contracts in sections to PARSONS BRINCKERHOFF-TUDOR-BECHTEL for Propatria-Fuerzas Armadas, Section I, OCOIDESA-GRID-APM for Fuerzas Armadas-Chacaito, Section II and OCOIDESA GRID-APM for Chacaito-Petare, Section III. Construction contracts were awarded by international bidding and work is now underway, by joint venture organizations of Venezuelan and foreign firms. The first two sections are under the administration of a company of Engineer/Inspectors in each section. The construction supervision of contracts in the first section is under the administration of the Venezuelan firm, Gómez-Celis-Herrera, (GCH) Engineers, acting under contract to the new C.A. Metro de Caracas that replaced ' the former Office of the Metro. The Propatria-Fuerzas Armadas section, approximately seven kilometers long, consists in part of the 2,951 linear meters of twin-bore

Jan 1, 1979

By Karl H. Bruemmer

1. TRENDS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE MECHANICAL DRIVING OF UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS IN THE GERMAN COAL MINING INDUSTRY The demand for higher advance in underground excavations led, in the past ten years, to the development and application of various mechanical methods in the coal mining industry of the Federal Republic of Germany. Hence, a modern mine cannot operate anymore without tunneling machines for the driving of horizontal and inclined roads and shaft boring machines for the sinking of shafts. In future, boring operations will assume a high positional value in the mining industry, as the development of cutters has kept pace with the development of machines. In the past ten years, about 40 km of roadways have been bored by tunneling machines in the German coal mining industry, further 140 km will be bored by 1990, part of which are already under contract. The idea was tempting to apply the technology of horizontal tunnel borers also to the sinking of vertical shafts. The underground contractors Deilmann-Haniel GmbH of Dortmund and Thyssen Schachtbau GmbH of Mülheim/Ruhr developed already in 1970, together with Wirth of Erkelenz, a shaft boring machine working without drill pipes, capable of sinking shafts following a pilot borehole, according to the downward reaming method (Fig. 1). In the meantime, two such shaft borers are operating in coal mines with diameters of 4.50 m to 6.50 m. Recently an order was placed for a third Wirth shaft borer for diameters up to 8.50 m. Since 1971 about 3.800 m of open or blind shafts have been sunk by the reaming process (Fig. 2).

Jan 1, 1979

By Wayne F. Crockett, Martin H. Col

Gold, as a precious metal, has been sought for several thousand years. During this time economics have generally determined whether or not a deposit is minable. Today, few would spend $500.00 or $1,000.00 to produce one ounce of gold, yet most gold deposits currently being mined would have such costs if they were mined using the methods of the 18th century. Innovation has been the key to success in the world of mining. We are constantly having to look for new ways to mine deposits of lower grade, at greater depths, or with higher stripping ratios. The mining of placer gold deposits has always been subject to the volatile swings of the world price and the constant rise in production costs. The rise in costs is compounded by the drop in overall ore grades. Occasionally, a major technological innovation will dramatically reduce the costs of placer mining to allow previously marginal or unminable deposits to be mined at a profit. The continuous bucketline dredge was the last such major innovation in the gold placer mining. The continuous bucketline dredge has allowed large volumes of placer deposits to be picked up and processed on a continuous basis. Unfortunately, as the overall grade of the deposit declines, it becomes impossible to process enough ore to pay for the operating costs. There are many gold deposits around the world waiting for the next technological innovation that will allow them to be mined. One such deposit has been the Grey River deposit near Greymouth in New Zealand. The deposit contains gold reserves of 8992 kg, yet the deposit has been sitting idle for many years because the average value

Jan 1, 1988

By J. D. Morgan

The US economy grew steadily in 1989, reaching an annual rate of $5.3 trillion in the last quarter (US trillion=1012 ). The value of domestically processed, mineral-based materials rose 5% to $315 billion (US billion=109). The value of metals produced from US ores rose 14% to $11.6 billion, while industrial minerals rose 2% to $20.2 billion. Recycled scrap was valued at $10 billion. Increasing economic activity stimulated metal prices. Yearly lows and highs were $2.31 and $3.56/kg ($1.05 and $1.62 per lb) for copper, $1.58 and $2.57/kg (72 and $1.17 per lb) for aluminum, 77 and 97 cents/kg (35 cents and 44 cents per lb) for lead, and $1.58 and $2.09/kg (72 cents and 95 cents per lb) for zinc. Many mining and metal companies reported reasonable profits. Consumer demand strongly affects mining because the US economy is saturated with long-lived products. Consumer, mortgage, and Federal debt continued to rise. 250 million US citizens already possess 172 million licensed motor vehicles and 100 million dwelling units. New car production fell 4% to 6.8 million units, while truck and bus production fell 1 % to four million units. New housing starts fell 9% to 1.4 million units. Imports supplied a significant proportion of total US consumption of several important mineral materials. Imports of crude and refined petroleum costing $50 billion exceeded domestic crude oil production. President Bush expressed "strong concerns about this country becoming further dependent on foreign oil." And the Department of Energy held a series of hearings around the country to develop ideas for a "national energy strategy."

Jan 1, 1990

By Steve Van Kouteren

Filters and absorbents purify, clarify, and clean many types of liquids by removing solid particles. In addition, absorbents provide a convenient way to handle liquids and to clean up liquid wastes or spills. Filtration or absorptive processes are accomplished either in a mechanical way, as in absorption and filtration, or in a chemical way, as in adsorption. In filtration, minerals and rocks used as filter mediums are extensively utilized in applications requiring the filtration of high volumes of liquids. End use applications include liquid food products, waste waters, petroleum and chemicals, and drugs and pharmaceuticals. Upon closer examination of all of the materials used as filters and absorbents, industrial minerals and rocks represent only a small proportion of the total amount, as shown in [Fig. 1] (Rees, 1991). Given all the industries that use these minerals, most of the volume is concentrated in a few major end-use markets. Within these major end-use markets, a handful of minerals account for most of the total volume and value. The focus for this chapter will be to discuss the industrial minerals and rocks used as filters and absorbents in the most important markets. The selection of the minerals and markets to review is solely based on the total volume of material used and in special cases, those where the value of the market and material is high. The major materials include diatomite, perlite, sand, gravel, and such specialty clays as montmorillonite and attapulgite. These materials are mainly used for the filtration of food, chemical, and petroleum products. In addition, they are used as absorbents for pet litter and oil and grease spills, and as carriers for pesticides and fertilizers.

Jan 1, 1994

By Jeffery Leavy, Ken Davis, Kirk H. McDaniel

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is a United States Department of Energy facility located in southeastern New Mexico. It is designed for the safe disposal of transuranic radioactive waste in deep geologic salt beds. Westinghouse TRU Solutions, LLC, the managing and operating contractor, undertook a project to simulate the processes at WIPP in order to identify bottlenecks and optimize available resources. The activities simulated in the model included the receipt, processing and disposal of radioactive waste underground, the mining of new areas for future waste disposal and the transportation of salt out of the mine. The complexity of the processes and the interactive requirements between processes required the use of advanced modeling techniques. The simulation model includes a huge number of locations and path network node points, with movement to and from the locations controlled using parameters rather than explicit routing. Information for the timing and sequence of the mining and nuclear waste emplacement operations is brought into the model via spreadsheets. Arrays in the simulation model keep track of past and future events that occur. Routing to the multiple possible positions in the underground mine is done using attributes, and system functions within ProModel in order to allow for a highly flexible sequence of planned events and to reduce the level of effort in creating the ProModel processing. Considerable use of subroutines in the simulation model is utilized for parametric decision-making that is repetitive. This presentation describes the modeling techniques used to accurately simulate the surface and underground operations. The surface and underground operations are considerably different, thus they will be treated in their own sections.

Jan 1, 2002

By David A. Holmes

After a century of variable government-supplied housing on their cold, windswept lands, and facing extremely limited natural resources and no timber, the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe has launched a study into alternative housing approaches for their people. Considering that they have little more than the soil and limited river aggregates under their feet, the Tribe has elected to consider adobe and earthen-wall construction. Earthen construction is no stranger to the Sioux lands. Smaller tribes, including the Mandan, Arikira, and Hidatsa, lived here among the Sioux in earthlodges for centuries. Such earthlodge structures were not unlike the Southwestern jacal style-a framework of upright branches and branches covered with mud-employed by the Anasazi about A.D. 700-900. Indeed, the Sioux people themselves evolved from earlier earthlodge dwellers. Indigenous peoples in New Mexico, Arizona, and neighboring Mexico have used earthen-wall housing for many centuries, reinforcing Sioux observations that this is today an earth-friendly, cost-effective, and practical approach. The Cheyenne River and Pine Ridge Sioux Reservations also recently have conducted studies on earthen- wall construction. This paper describes the search for and evaluation of potential raw-material resources for earthen-wall/adobe construction on the Standing Rock Reservation in North and South Dakota. Significant resources of clay/silt materials (8 million tons in the Striped Cloud clay bed) suitable as adobe binders and sand-and-gravel aggregate (2.5 million tons) that could support earthen/adobe construction have been identified throughout the Fort Yates Flat area on the Reservation. Also addressed is how adobe and rammed-earth construction could add to the diversity of reservation construction and address future Tribal housing and other building needs.

Jan 1, 1999

By Takashi Sasaoka

About 200 M tons of coal were imported into Japan in 2007 and Indonesia was its second largest exporter, accounting for about 30 M tons (12% of the total imported coal). Indonesia produced about 200 M tons of coal, about 75% of which was exported in 2007. As the Indonesian government has decided on an energy policy wherein 33% of the country?s primary energy demand will be met by coal by the year 2025, the domestic demand for coal has increased dramatically in recent years. Over 99% of the coal produced in Indonesia comes from surface mines. However, the conditions of surface mines are worsening each year: the stripping ratio is increasing, approaching the economic ratio, and the infrastructure for coal from inland mining areas is insufficient for such intense mining operations. To meet the demand for coal in Indonesia and the rest of the world, underground mines have to be developed. However, mining engineers and/or miners in Indonesia do not have a lot of experiences, expertise and know-how concerning the plans and operations of an underground coal mine. In addition, the industry faces a lot of problems which include poor conditions such as a steep coal seam, groundwater problem, stability of highwall, etc. Under these situations, a mine targeted in this research attempts to develop a new underground mine from an open-cut highwall because the stripping ratio in the surface mining area has almost reached the limitation of economic value. This paper discusses the possible development of a new underground coal mine from an open-cut highwall by means of field observation and numerical analysis.

Jan 1, 2009

By Wilbur C. (Original by) Helt

Throughout the history of mankind, the principal use of coal has been to produce heat through combustion. The heat is used in many ways: to warm air space for our comfort; to provide heat or energy to power industrial processes, such as cement and steel production; and to produce electricity. Because it is our nation's most abundant fossil energy fuel, coal in the late 20th century is on the threshold of becoming a significant source for synthetic liquids and gas energy fuels for this country. This is made possible by conversion processes which can change solid coal into various synthetic gases and liquids. These coal-derived fuels are nearly identical to the processed fuels and chemicals provided by natural gas and crude oils, which presently provide almost all the petrochemical feedstocks and energy fuels needed for the residential, light commercial, and transportation markets. A revolution is beginning to take place, not only in the United States, but in many other countries with a return to a coal-based energy economy. Also, new combustion and conversion technologies which are compatible with national health and environmental goals are rapidly emerging. These technologies will allow coal's use to be expanded not only in its traditional markets, but also to supply markets held by natural gas and crude oil. With the worldwide decline in natural gas and crude oil reserves, coal is being-looked upon to meet the energy demand. Because of these new coal conversion technologies, coal will no longer be only a combustion fuel, but a valuable raw material for production of a variety of clean fuels and chemicals.

Jan 1, 1981

By John Parianos

"Seafloor mining provides significant potential economic benefits for many Pacific nations that may be "land poor" but "coastline rich," meaning they have the potential to utilize and profit from the mineral wealth within their Exclusive Economic Zones that extend 200 nautical miles (360 km) out from their coastlines. The Independent State of Papua New Guinea (the State) recognizes this tremendous opportunity and is taking a leadership role in this emerging industry by becoming a 15% partner in Solwara 1 (with an option to increase their investment to 30%).The Solwara 1 Project has been gaining momentum since Nautilus Minerals and the State signed an Agreement on April 24. This new agreement with the State in which they have staked a minimum 15% interest as a meaningful partner, underscores the State’s continued and widespread support for the Project. Signing of this Agreement was a historical occasion and a milestone achievement for Nautilus Minerals and the people of PNG.The machinery being built for the Solwara 1 Project is taking shape. The Seafloor Production Tools are now over 90 percent complete. Assembly of the biggest tool, the Bulk Cutter, was completed in April this year and assembly work on the Collecting Machine and the Auxiliary Cutter commenced in May and June this year respectively. The Riser and Lifting system, which will be used to transfer the mined material from the seafloor to the surface within an enclosed system, is over 50 percent complete. The critical path for the Solwara Project is to secure a suitable vessel arrangement. Nautilus aims to have this completed by the end of this year."

Sep 1, 2014

By K. Burke, K. L. Myers, R. Espell

Barrick Goldstrike’s (Goldstrike) AA Heap Leach Pad is an HDPE lined facility used for gold recovery from low grade ores using conventional cyanide heap leach technology, operated from 1987 through 1999. Goldstrike prepared a unique reclamation plan for the AA Leach Pad Facility to provide for a cost-effective, environmentally sound facility closure and to fulfill the State of Nevada’s closure requirements. Traditional Nevada leach pad closure has involved rinsing to reduce cyanide concentration to an acceptable level, followed by reclamation. However, certain metals and compounds are not typically reduced by rinsing and some constituents may increase in concentration with rinsing. A closure scenario to effect limited infiltration through installation of a capillary cover for the leach pad was developed. The capillary cover was constructed by placing a fine-grained layer above the coarse-grained spent leach material to create a capillary break. In an arid climate such as Nevada, the fine-grained layer will rarely reach full saturation and the cover will be able to store water during precipitation and allow removal of water through evaporation and transpiration (ET) during the growing season. A 1.22 m (4 ft) cover thickness was selected as the optimum design cover thickness. The drainage network on the surface of the re-contoured AA Heap Leach Pad was specifically designed to enhance the revegetation, reclamation, and sediment yield control aspects of the AA Heap Leach Pad closure, while resulting in a natural looking surface, compatible with the surrounding topography. Adjacent natural topographic features were used to establish target design parameters for re-contouring and erosion control design.

Jan 1, 2001

By James A. Madonna

Several universities and colleges in Australia, Canada and the United States, recognized the need to establish or reorganize geoscience programs at the vocational and two-year technical levels. To accomplish this, a cooperative study with industry in one state or province from each country was initiated. These include Tasmania in Australia, British Columbia in Canada and Alaska in the United States. The objective of this work was to develop a diversified geoscience educational model at the two-year technical, vocational and continuing education level that provides the source from which any nation can draw the proper educational tools to create a new geoscience program, modernize an existing program or strengthen a weak program. More than 100 mineral industry organizations provided information regarding their specific training needs for support personnel. The data gathered have been used to identify training areas for semi-skilled, skilled and technical personnel in geochemical mineral exploration. These included geological, geochemical, environmental and computer skills. With the areas of major educational need defined for geochemical exploration, an educational field skills model was developed for the three levels of training. The international need for a study of this type was recognized as early as 1980, following numerous contacts from domestic and foreign geoscience educators regarding the structure and success of training within the University of Alaska Fairbanks Mining Extension program, located in Fairbanks. Contacts, correspondence and visits included educators from Australia, Brazil, Canada, Mozambique and the conterminous United States. The need was magnified between 1985 and 1989 at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, when an attempt failed at initiating and developing a two-year geoscience vocational-technology program leading to an Associate of Science degree.

Jan 1, 1994

In its April 1991 issue, MINING ENGINEERING published a salary survey form asking for information relating to engineering and management jobs in the minerals industry. 1038 of these forms were filled out and returned, most of them being received in the magazine's offices at SME headquarters before the end of June 1991. An SME volunteer took on the task of tabulating and analyzing data from the forms, but the press of other business interfered with this work, and publication has been delayed until this issue of MINING ENGINEERING. Appreciation is extended to SME members who took the time to fill out and return the salary survey forms, and our apologies go to MINING ENGINEERING'S readers for the delay in publication. Of the total number of forms received, more than 97% were from SME members. The geographic distribution of the respondents closely mirrored that of SME membership as a whole, about 50% being from the Society's Western Region, 19% from the Central Region, and 23% from the Eastern Region. About 8% were from outside the US. Average salaries for each of the four geographic areas ranged between $55,000 and $60,000, with the highest average in Eastern Region (Fig. 1). Respondents were asked to answer a number of questions formulated to determine if there are significant differences in salaries based on the type of organization for which they work. As indicated by Table 1, salary averages at mining companies do not vary markedly with the size of the company: • Large companies, defined as those having more than $1 billion in annual sales, accounted for just over 16% of the returns. Their average salary was $61,840 per year.

Jan 1, 1992