Search Documents

By Fumitaka Tsukihashi

Increasing amounts of steel scrap are being used as resources for steelmaking. Therefore, there has been a growing interest in the removal of harmful tramp elements such as antimony, zinc, tin, arsenic, bismuth, lead and copper from the molten steel. The problem that should be solved is the economic removal treatment of residual tramp elements in the steelmaking processes and the production of high quality steel by reducing the effect of the contaminated tramp elements and satisfying the environmental regulations. In this paper, the available thermodynamic data of the residual tramp elements in the molten steel arc summarized and the possibility of the removal of residual tramp elements from the molten steel is thermodynamically estimated.

Jan 1, 2003

By Byung-Su Kim

The reaction between calcium sulfate and hydrogen is of interest both as a means of regenerating calcium sulfide as a reductant of sulhr dioxide to elemental sulhr and for producing elemental sulhr from gypsum. This reaction was investigated using a thermogravimetric analysis technique in the absence and presence of nickel catalyst. The reaction temperature was varied between 973 and 1153 K, while the hydrogen partial pressures of 12.9 - 86.1 kPa were utilized. At 1073 K and a hydrogen partial pressure of 86.1 kPa, 60 % of the original calcium sulfate in the absence, and 95 % in the presence, of the nickel catalyst was converted to calcium sulfide in one hour.

Jan 1, 1999

By Pedro A. Netto, Sergio N. Monteiro, Foluke S. de Assis, Rômulo L. Loiola, Frederico M. Margem

Banana fibers are among the lignocellulosic with great potential for use in polymer composites, such as the variety from the Musaceae family, due to its low density and good mechanical properties. In this work, epoxy matrix composites incorporated with continuous and aligned banana fibers were tested for their flexural behavior. Specimens with up to 30% in volume of fibers were bend-tested until rupture. The results showed an increase in both the composite mechanical strength and the stiffness with incorporation of these fibers. A fractographic analysis by SEM examinations a moderate adhesion mechanism between the banana fiber and the epoxy matrix. This mechanism is apparently responsible for the improved performance of the composites.

Jan 1, 2015

By A. Rikos, G. Pantazopoulos, A. Vazdirvanidis, A. Toulfatzis

In this study, the mechanical properties of an annealed CuZn36 rolled brass alloy with 0.2 mm thickness with respect to anisotropy expressed in terms of plastic strain ratio measurements (r-values, normal and planar anisotropy) are related with the development of specific rolling and recrystallization texture components obtained by EBSD. Anisotropic behaviour is primarily controlled by the crystallographic texture and constitutes an indicator of multi-axial mechanical behaviour, affecting directly the drawability and sheet metal formability. Microstructure examination employing optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy of tensile specimens are performed in order to investigate the emergent damage mechanisms in relation to the texture and structure evolution of the final product.

Mar 1, 2017

By C. Palacios

The Plant, which was started up in April 1970, was originally designed for a capacity of 40.000 ton of cathodes per annum, using 12 sections, containing 408 cells. Since then the addition of another 8 sections containing 280 cells and using the Reverse Current System has made possible the increased output of 109.000 ton. The quality of the cathodes produced is excellent. The extension of the Electrolytic Refinery, by the introduction of the Reverse Current System, has been a great success and no problem has arisen in the new equipment or in the modifications carried out in the plant. The operation of the plant has improved due to better control procedures.

Jan 1, 1976

By Moto Goto

PT Smelting, located in Gresik, East Java, is the first copper smelter and refinery in Indonesia. Since the first charging concentrate in December 1998, many equipment troubles have been systematically eliminated, and the present operation is smooth and has accomplished the design capacity of 200,000 tonnes per year of LME, grade-A copper cathode. This paper describes troubles and countermeasures, which were experienced until now.

Jan 1, 2002

By L. Salinas

Lance injection of gas and particles into a molten bath is currently practised in metallurgical processes (Mitsubishi lances for example). Several experimental and theorical studies have been conducted in the past on this topic. However, neither detailed calculations nor experimental studies of local flow patterns have been published. In the present work, a numerical simulation of the interaction of a gaseous vertical descending jet and a liquid surface was done, using the turbulence k-e model. There is a fair agreement between the calculated and the experimental values. The results of this study demonstrate that it is crucial that the gas jet velocity profile and turbulent characteristic are correctly formulated in order to correctly simulate the system.

Jan 1, 1999

By Melissa L. Trapani

The removal of molten products from metallurgical furnaces is one of the most hazardous and labour intensive processes in a non-ferrous smelter. The proximity of operators to the molten metal and slag during tapping and the oxygen lancing that facilitates the flow have led to many reported injuries on tapping floors. In most cases, tapholes are opened and closed periodically leading to extreme thermal cycling in the tapping assembly. As a consequence, refractory wear rates are high and unpredictable in the taphole. This paper provides a review of the current state of taphole development, and gives a methodology that is now being applied to gain a better understanding of the taphole region to allow design improvements.

Jan 1, 2002

By Michael J. Virnig

The formation of crud is a normal part of operating a solvent extraction circuit for the recovery of copper. It periodically must be removed from the circuit. This results in significant costs in terms of manpower, downtime, and loss of circuit organic. Field studies have been carried out that show that the presence of a thermodynamic modifier in the organic phase contributes to crud formation. In an effort to better understand what factors contribute to crud formation, laboratory studies involving competitive adsorption studies with model solids have been carried out. The results of these laboratory studies will be integrated with the results of the field studies to present a better understanding of crud formation.

Jan 1, 1999

By Peter Kong

This paper provides a general discussion of atmospheric-pressure plasma generation, processes, and applications. There are two distinct categories of atmospheric-pressure plasmas: thermal and nonthermal. Thermal atmospheric-pressure plasmas include those produced in high intensity arcs, plasma torches, or in high intensity, high frequency discharges. Although nonthermal plasmas are at room temperatures, they are extremely effective in producing activated species, e.g., free radicals and excited state atoms. Thus, both thermal and nonthermal atmospheric-pressure plasmas are finding applications in a wide variety of industrial processes, e.g. waste destruction, material recovery, extractive metallurgy, powder synthesis, and energy conversion. A brief discussion of recent plasma technology research and development activities at the Idaho National Laboratory is included.

Jan 1, 2006

By Takeo Fujino, Nobuaki Sato, Yarong Wang, Kohta Yamada

"Ternary mixed sulfides of some transition metals MTS3 (M=Ba, ·Pb, T=Ti, Zr) were synthesized by a relatively low temperature process using sulfur melt. The mixture of starting materials, such as, metals and/or binary sulfides and a large excess of sulfur was reacted in a vacuum-sealed Pyrex or quartz ampoule at 350- 600 °C for one to three weeks. After the reaction, the remaining sulfur was completely removed by a process composed of filtration of sulfur melt and followed dissolution in CS2• The binary sulfides impurities coexisted in the products were removed by rinsing the products in water and acetone. By using the above method, BaTiS3, PbTiS3 and BaZrS3 'Were obtained in pure form. The effect of addition of halides on the yields of these ternary sulfides were also discussed.IntroductionThere have been a vast number of studies on the preparation and physical and /or chemical properties of mixed metal oxides. As is well known, some of such compounds exhibit excellent materials properties, causing them for use in mechanical, electronic, magnetic and chemical devices. Not a few mixed metal sulfides show similar physico-chemical properties to those of the corresponding mixed metal oxides. However, the study of the mixed sulfide crystals is rather sparse mainly due to difficulties in preparing these compounds. In various methods which have been adopted for preparing mixed sulfides, the simplest method would be the solid-solid reaction of the component binary sulfides or elements. However, there are always diffusional constraints with regard to the reactions in solid phases causing it necessary to heat the reactants at sufficiently high temperatures, viz. 800-1200°C. On the other hand, some mixed sulfides are unstable at high temperatures or to change their materials properties due to sulfur nonstoichiometry and structural modification depending on temperature, i.e., synthesis of such compounds needs to be made at lower temperatures. Processing in alkali halide melts is hopeful to overcome the above problems but to obtain the halide melts the temperatures above ~ 600 °C is needed. Low temperature reaction has been carried out for the preparation of Hg1.24TiS4, which was formed by the ·combination of TiS2 and molten Hg metal at 320°C[l]. Reaction of WS2 with LiBH4 melt at 350°C yielded LixWS2[2]. These sophisticated methods, however, can be applied only to the vary special cases."

Jan 1, 2000

By K. Yamaguchi, Y. Takeda

"Partial pressure - temperature - composition correlation diagrams of the Ga-As, In-As, Ga-P and In-P systems were contracted based on the obtained experimental data of the phase diagram and thermodynamic properties for the III-V systems. The total vapor pressures of arsenic or phosphorus at melting point of GaAs, InAs, GaP and InP were determined as 101, 10.1, 1510 and 253 kPa, respectively, at the corresponding melting points of 1509, 1211, 1739 and. 1336K , These diagrams are applied to the analysis of the horizontal Bridgman method and the liquid phase epitaxial growth technique. On the other hand, the analysis of the equilibrium state of the. chloride-CVD process was carried out using the data of the Gibbs energy of the compounds obtained by· authors.IntroductionThe group III-V compound semiconductors ate important materials used in optoelectronic liquid high speed electronic device. The crystal growth of the III-V compounds can involve processes that require contact between the solid, liquid and vapour phases at near equilibrium condition. Examples of processes that involve contact between the solid, liquid and vapour phases include bulk crystal growth such as the horizontal Bridgman and the liquid encapsulated Czochralski method and liquid epitaxy, and between the solid and vapor include chemical vapour deposition and molecular beam epitaxy. Therefore, the knowledge of the phase diagram and thermodynamic properties for the III-V binary alloys is essential for the analyses of crystal growth techniques of III-V compounds.For these reasons, a series of different · types calorimetric measurements had been carried out: (1) The heat contents of alloys for the Ga-As, In-As, Ga-P and In-P systems by a drop calorimeter [1;2,3]; (2) the heats of formation of the GaAs, InAs, GaP and InP compounds by a twin solution calorimeter [4]; and (3) the standard entropy of these compounds by an adiabatic calorimeter [5]. Based on the third law method, the Gibbs energies of these compounds were derived from the heat capacity, standard heat of formation and standard entropy data obtained by authors. Integral molar thermodynamic quantities of the liquid III-V .alloys were also determined from combining the heat contents of alloys with standard heat of formation and standard entropy data of the compounds· by applying the thermodynamic analysis method developed by Oelsen [6]. In the present study, the thermodynamic calculations for the crystal growth processes of the III-V compound were carried out using newly experimental data of the phase diagram and thermodynamic .properties measured by authors"

Jan 1, 2000

By Sheng Dai, Yuan Lee, Haiming Xiao, J. P. Young

"There are numerous analytical applications of scatter-emission and/or absorption spectroscopy applied to liquids and solids in the temperature range of 0 to 350°C. In this paper an all-silica fiberoptic probe is described which is useful for spectral analyses from 0 to 1600 K and can be used in harsh chemical environments. The probe has been used for Raman spectral analyses of many molten salt and solid material systems to 1000°C. It has applications for such studies at higher temperature ranges. The instrumentation required along with the demonstrated and proposed applications of the all-silica probe are presented and discussed.IntroductionThere are many kinds of scatter-emission spectroscopies that are of value for analytical measurements. Fluorescence, reflectance, arc or spark emission are descriptors for some of these. Raman scatter spectroscopy is also quite a useful technique for analytical measurements.In Figure 1, we give a simplified explanation of the Raman effect. If one shines monochromatic light into a sample, light may be absorbed, exciting the sample to some virtual state. We know from experience that almost all of the light is re-emitted in the same wavelength range. This is called Rayleigh or Mei scattering and is designated in the figure by the arrows in both examples that point up and down from the same lower energy state. A very small percentage (the order of 10-4%) of the monochromatic light is re-emitted leaving the sample at a vibrationally-excited state. Thus, this light is at a distinctly lower energy compared to the exciting radiation. This is called a Stokes shift and is represented in the left-hand example by an arrow descending to a more energetic vibrational state. If the sample is not at a temperature of absolute zero, some of this vibrationally excited state will be thermally populated. That portion of the sample still absorbs and re-emits exciting radiation as Rayleigh scattered light, but a small percentage of the exciting light is re-emitted as the sample relaxes to the lower vibrational state. The energy of this light is of higher energy and is called an anti-Stokes shift, depicted in the example to the right. Notice that the energy separation of the Stokes or anti-Stokes shifted emission from that of the exciting radiation is the same, and expressed in ~cm-I. The intensity of either shifted emission is a function of the population of the vibrational energy states; therefore, the ratio of the intensity of Stokes to anti-Stokes signal varies with absolute temperature. We will come back to this point later."

Jan 1, 1997

By Kunihiko Takeda, Kimio Imaizumi, Tsuyoshi Arai

"The study on the preparation of mono-dispersed liquid droplet was performed using ultrasonic as one of the steps of producing the perfectly mono-dispersed particle. The ultrasonic system was a 33.6kHz ultrasonic generator, an amplifier, an electric distortion element, and a bolted Langevin type horn installed in .a cell. For the first time, a liquid pillar under a nozzle of the cell ·was stably formed. Then, dense and coarse parts were alternatively constructed by oscillating the wavelength of the ultrasonic.· The diameter of those liquid droplets were found to be· perfectly uniform, therefore, it was measured by ""multiplex photography"" using a synchronized stroboscope with the ultrasonic.- From the results, more than 30,000 of perfectly uniform liquid droplets in 1 second were observed by this method.IntroductionRecently, research on the control of physical form is done in various fields of industry. Some examples are the processing technology of the minute compound material of micro-machines and integrated circuits, and the form control of molecule size like catalysts. There is a need for such material to take on various forms in correspondence to its use. ""Form control"" as used in this study will indicate ""research on physical chemistry factors which determine the size of the material"" and will refer to the contour uniformity of comparatively little particles. A well-known method of preparing particles is to spout a mist of liquid and slurry from a nozzle l) 2). Particles for metals, catalysts and food have been prepared by this method. In this case, although an approximate particle diameter can be decided by controlling the nozzle diameter and the violent outflow velocity, it is not easy to completely control ·the contour and to prepare a particle with uniform diameter. ·However, the preparation of perfectly uniform particles is necessary for solders for the adhesion of electronic wiring 3), ion exchange resins4), catalysts and so on. Large quantities of fine particles and super-fine particles are generated when manufactured in the usual way. Large quantities of these fine· particles and super-fine particles have polluted the internal and external' environments of factories. The products yield' ·decreases, also. From such a background, this study examines the preparation of perfectly uniform particles that could be· collected -100% as products. Recently, NASA has succeeded in the preparation of perfectly uniform particles in zero gravity 5). But the preparation of 'perfectly uniform particles by this method is difficult, and it can not be used in general industry"

Jan 1, 2000

By Carlos Maurício Fontes Vieira, Sergio Neves Monteiro

"A ceramic body traditionally used to produce bricks and roofing tiles with kaolinitic clays was reformulated by the addition of sand and illitic clay. The objective was to obtain a ceramic product with better technological properties. Specimens were made by uniaxial press-molding at 20 MPa and then fired at 850, 900 and 950°C. The determined technological properties were: linear shrinkage, water absorption and flexural rupture strength. The results showed that both sand and illitic clay contribute to reduce the water absorption of the industrial clayey body. With respect to the flexural behavior, it was observed that the incorporation of sand decreased the mechanical strength. On the other hand, the illitic, incorporated in an amounts of 30 wt.% contributed to increase the mechanical strength of the clayey ceramic.IntroductionCeramic bodies industrially fabricated in the county of Campos, north of the State of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, are still empirically elaborated using a mixture of local clays. These clays are predominantly kaolinitic mineral in nature, associated with high plasticity and elevated weight loss during the firing stage. Due to the excessive plasticity of the ceramic bodies, dimensional defects, which occur after drying and firing are usually obtained. Moreover, the kaolinitic nature and the presence of aluminum hydroxide (gibbsite) confer a refractory behavior to the local clays, which impairs sintering during the firing operation. In the case of clay ceramic products for civil construction, this results in greater porosity associated with elevated values of water absorption and low mechanical strength [1,2]. To avoid these problems, it is necessary to reformulate the ceramic body composition. The addition of both non-plastic materials to reduce plasticity and fluxes to condition the refractoriness is a possible alternative.As an alternative to reduce the plasticity of clayey ceramics sand, which is predominantly constituted of silica, can be used. The incorporation of sand in amounts of up to 25 wt.% to a clayey ceramic body used for roofing tiles fabrication was studied by Vieira et al. [3]. In that work specimens were prepared by extrusion and fired at 850°C. The results indicated that in the pre-firing stages the sand improved the workability of the investigated clayey ceramic body and facilitates the drying stage. It was also observed that the incorporated sand significantly improved the physical and mechanical properties of the clayey ceramic after firing. On the other hand, the apport of flux oxides could be done by the use of illitic clays that have a higher amount of alkaline oxides in comparison with the kaolinitics clays."

Jan 1, 2013

By H. Hahn, B. H. Kear, K. Kan, S. C. Danforth, G. Skandan, W. Chang

"A new chemical synthetic process for the production of non-agglomeratednano structured ceramic (n-ceramic) powders, starting from metalorganic precursors, is described. The process combines rapid thermal decomposition of a precursor/carrier gas stream in a hot tubular reactor with rapid condensation of the product particle species on a cold substrate. Critical to the success of this Chemical Vapor Condensation (CVC) process are (1) a low concentration of precursor compound in the carrier gas, (2) rapid expansion of the gas stream through an uniformly heated tubular reactor under a reduced inert gas pressure of 1-35 mbar, and (3) rapid quenching of the gas phase nucleated clusters or nanoparticles as they exit from the reactor tube. A wide variety of metal organic precursors is available commercially, all of which can be utilized in the CVC process to produce n-ceramic powders, including single phase, multiphase and multicomponent systems.The CVC process has been used to synthesize non-agglomerated n-SiCxNy and n-ZrOxCy powders, with controlled particle size in the range 2-20 nm. Heat treatment of the assynthesized n-powders in various high purity gas streams causes compositional and structural modifications, including particle purification and crystallization, as well as transformation to a whisker-like morphology. Thus, as-synthesized amorphous n-SiCxNy particles transform to (1) cubic n-SiC particles, when heated in flowing argon at temperatures> 1350 °C, (2) hexagonal n-Si3N4 whiskers, when heated in flowing NH3IH2 at 1400 °C, and (3) cubic nSiC whiskers, when heated in flowing H2 at 1400 °C.Non-agglomerated n-ceramic powders form uniformly dense powder compacts by cold pressing, which can be sintered to theoretical density at temperatures as low as 0.5 Tm' For example, full densification ofn-Zr02 powder compacts under free sintering conditions can be achieved at 1125 °C."

Jan 1, 1994

By M. J. Bagshaw, J. D. Hunt, R. M. Jordan

"Continuous casting processes, and the roll casting process in particular, offer considerable potential to the Aluminium industry, both meatallurgically and economically.The three major limiting process problems that occur during roll casting are Centre Line Segregation', 'Sticking' where metal adheres to the rolls during casting, and 'Heat Line' formation. 'Heat Lines' are localised semi-continuous longitudinal defects, usually a few cms in width, where the cast metal leaves the roll bite partially molten. These defects occur at relatively low casting speeds when the mean slab exit temperature remains several hundred degrees below the solidus temperature. The objective of the work described here is to develop a better understanding of the roll casting process in general, and in particular, to understand the phenomenon of 'Heat Line' formation.A steady state two dimensional finite difference model has been developed to describe the roll casting process, incorporating a variable heat transfer coefficient through the roll bite. In the model the difference equations are formulated using a control volume method and latent heat is incorporated according to the Scheil equation. A Gauss-Seidel type technique is used to obtain the solution. Because the rate of heat evolution is non-linear the temperature in each box is determined by using a Newton-Raphson method. The solution for a box can be multi valued and therefore lead to instability particularly near the vicinity of the front. A stability 'criterion is presented which shows that to obtain a stable solution it is better to have long narrow boxes rather than boxes with small dimensions in both directions.The model explains why heat lines form in terms of the variable slab/roll heat transfer coefficient.Experimental measurements of slab exit temperatures are also presented. These were obtained on a Hunter twin roll caster for the binary AI-Cu system, at two compositions over as wide a range· of casting speeds as possible. The experimental results are compared with the predicted ones."

Jan 1, 1986

By Tatsuo Inoue, Marnoru Mizuno, Toru Matsuoka, Kenichiro Abe

"The distribution of particle reinforcements and the residual stresses in metal matrix composite are simulated by considering the motion of particles and the solidification of matrix associated with temperature variation in the course of centrifugal casting process. In the analysis, a heat conduction equation including heat generation due to latent heat and also mechanical work as well as heat input from successively accumulated element on the air/metal boundary is solved by the finite element technique. After the movement of particles subjected to the centrifugal force and drag are analyzed, the residual stresses are elucidated by using a unified constitutive equation which can describe the behavior both in liquid and solid states. Results of the simulation are compared with the experimental data, and the validity and utility of the procedure is confirmed.IntroductionProcess simulation of metal matrix composite (MMC) is required to determine the mechanical properties of the materials and the efficient process and conditions of the fabrication. Properties of bonding matrix with reinforcements in the course of the processing, for example, affects the strength of the composite, while the final costs of the productions depends on the efficiency of fabrication. Therefore, the simulation of processing of MMC is prerequisite in order to clarify the mechanism to fabricate the material which has been expected to maintain high mechanical properties and the cost performance.Some techniques of processing MMC[l] have been developed so far. Among them, the centrifugal casting technique [2-5] has many attractive characteristics as processing of the MMC: The centrifugal casting technique makes the reinforcements such as particles or short fibers to be distributed in the radial direction by the centrifugal force acting on reinforcements due to the difference in density between reinforcements and matrix. Since the distribution of reinforcements affect the mechanical properties of MMC, the composite with functionally gradient mechanical properties can be provided by the centrifugal casting technique."

Jan 1, 1994

By A. V. Tarasov, S. D. Klushin

493 The most common method for minimizing the copper content of residual slag in the process of autogenous smelting of sulfide raw materials is treatment of molten slag in an electric furnace, with optional addition of solid reducing agents, such as coke, and/or sulfiding agents such as pyrite. A drawback of this technique is the fact that the final slag produced still contains 0.5% or more Cu. We have tested a method for treating molten slag obtained as a result of autogenous smelting by a gaseous mixture of sulfur dioxide and methane at a ratio of. SC:SO2 = 0.75 :1.0 in the presence of oxygen. Interaction reaction within the SO2-O2-CRi system proceeded at a high rate at 1373 to 1573 K to form reducing and sulfiding agents: H2S, S, COS, CO, CO2, H2, H2O. The gas mixture requirement was about 100 to 150 Nm3 per 1 tonne of slag. A decrease in the ferric iron concentration (Fe3+) from 10-15% down to 2-3% resulted in lower solubility of copper in slag, and agitation of the melt with gas stream accelerated. the separation of the sulfide phase and slag. Removal of copper from slag was performed in a pilot unit within the second V anyukov furnace zone where slag arrived with a copper content of 0.8-1.3%. The temperature of molten slag was maintained within 1523 to 1573 K. The copper content of the final slag was at a level of0.12 to 0.14%. The matte sent to converting was a mixture of bottom matte from the smelting zone and the slag treatment zone. It had a copper content of about 50 to 55%. Process gases from both furnace zones were combined and sent to the acid plant for sulfur recovery. This process was offered for commercial use at two copper smelters in Russia and CIS.

Jan 1, 2000

By Orion Ciftja, Arjan Ciftja

"The directional solidification method is routinely used to produce polycrystalline silicon, an important material for the photovoltaic (PV) industry. The form of the solid-liquid interface during solidification has considerable influence on the material quality. The dissolved impurities and the solid inclusions above the solidification front affect the interface and may cause interface breakdown. We investigate the effects of pushing and engulfment of silicon carbide (SiC) particles by the solidification front during directional solidification of silicon. We employ a 12kg directional-crystallization furnace to cast the molten silicon. We use upgraded metallurgical grade silicon with low concentrations of metallic impurities (< 5ppm) and a high content of carbon (700 ppm) present as SiC particles. Samples from the cast polycrystalline silicon ingots are investigated by light microscope. The expected interaction of impurities with the solidification front is investigated theoretically using empirical models. The data obtained from the models are in good agreement with the experimental results.IntroductionDirectional solidification is a well-known method for producing multi-crystalline silicon for the PV industry. In this method a planar front, achieved during solidification, results in a clearly defined interface between the solid and the liquid phase. The solubility of major impurities is higher in the liquid than in the solid phase. Therefore, directional solidification will work as a purification process where the impurities are retained in the liquid phase [1]. Apart from the process of removing the dissolved elements in molten silicon, the directional solidification plays also another role. It will interact with the solid particles that may be present in the melt. When a liquid containing an insoluble particle is solidified, three distinct interaction phenomena are observed: engulfment of particles, continuous pushing, and entrapment [2]. The term “engulfment” is used to describe incorporation of a particle by a planar interface, and the term “entrapment” is used for particle incorporation by a cellular or dendritic interface (see Figure 1) [3]."

Jan 1, 2014