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By J P. Sykes, A Trench

"The common-held view of the future of copper mining is one of declining quality of mineral resources and increasingly limited long-term development options. This decline, in turn, is viewed as inevitably leading to increasing economic, socio-political and environmental costs. As a result, new technologies and innovations will be required to mitigate cost escalation. The future is therefore typically summarised as a battle of a ‘below-ground’ declining quality asset base pushing costs upward versus ‘above-ground’ technology and innovation driving costs downward. The role that high quality new mineral discoveries could play in mitigating industry cost pressures is typically understated, if considered at all. New high quality discoveries can be mined at lower cost than existing assets and potentially if discovered in the right locations within a more amenable contemporary environmental and socio-political setting. Such deposits, once discovered, would improve the overall quality of the industry asset base, as well as benefitting their owners substantially through higher margins. However, to target new high quality deposits explorers need some understanding of the nature of high quality copper mines in the long-term future. Conventional scientific and economic techniques for analysing the future of copper supply, generally by studying the project pipeline, ignore as yet undiscovered resources and also struggle to fully incorporate the multiple internal and external factors that could impact upon copper mining practices in the future.Scenario analysis is specifically designed to consider multiple factors interacting in the future, and is thus more creative than simply looking at the visible project pipeline. The use of scenarios is therefore potentially capable of providing insight into aspects of the future of copper mining about which little is currently known or that remains considerably uncertain. In this study, the Oxford University Scenarios methodology was employed to analyse different plausible futures for copper mining and the consequent implications for exploration targeting strategies. The scenario analysis highlights two key dimensions or axes that serve to map out potential industry futures: firstly the technical and economic optimisation of the existing industry; and secondly the generation of new prospects or ‘search space’ for the copper industry. These two axes in turn frame four different scenarios for the future of the copper mining industry. These copper mining scenarios are then compared to the 20 largest existing copper mines and projects, and their owners, to determine if any represent an appropriately robust exploration targeting proxy: none do. The paper therefore concludes that efforts by industry are required to generate mine concepts that would be viable across all scenarios, and thus act also as exploration targeting proxies. In the interim, companies will have to seek to build portfolios that create an overall robust asset base, out of individually less robust assets. Failure to do this implies that consequential, irreversible strategic decisions lie ahead for the copper mining industry, which may be a threat to both incumbents and the very industry itself. This situation makes strategic exploration targeting in the copper industry very difficult.CITATION:Sykes, J P and Trench, A, 2016. Using scenarios to investigate the long-term future of copper mining and guide exploration targeting strategies, in Proceedings International Mine Management Conference, pp 265-290 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Jun 22, 2016

By E. M. Norris

Phosphate deposits are distributed widely over the earth's surface. Of the known areas of deposit, eight fields are of particular interest because of their vast reserves of high grade phosphatic material and the volume of their production that goes to the world's great consuming areas. These fields, in the order of their present economic importance, are situated respectively in Florida, French Morocco, Kola Peninsula of U.S.S.R., Tunisia and Algeria, Tennessee, Montana-Idaho-Wyoming-Utah, Ocean and Naru Islands in the Gilbert group, and in Egypt. The Rocky Mountain deposits have a comparatively low ranking in the phosphate trade of today, but this field contains one of the largest known reserves of phosphatic material, associated with which are recoverable trace minerals, which are of increasing importance in our national economy. The first discoveries of phosphate rock in the western states were recorded in Cache1 and Rich2 counties in Utah, respectively in 1889 and 1897. Mining operations were begun on these deposits near Montpelier, Idaho, in 1906. During the latter year geological studies of the phosphate beds were started by Weeks and Ferrier of the U. S. Geological Survey. These studies have been continued to the present day by a distinguished roster of the Survey's technicians. As a result of this systematic exploratory program, the Survey has published a series of bulletins, papers, and maps, which provide the mining public with a comprehensive study of the exposed

Jan 1, 1949

By Alvin Kaufman

Increased exploration in Alaska has resulted in many requests to the Bureau of Mines for facts about the mineral resources and mining conditions in the Territory. This report presents information about the minerals of Southeastern Alaska and the factors that affect development of a mining industry in that area. Southeastern Alaska is a narrow coastal strip of rugged mountains and many islands. The climate is mild, with an average annual temperature of 40° and heavy rainfall. Geologically, the region is favorable for deposition of ore; geographic-ally, it is difficult to prospect and to develop, except along areas immediately adjacent to the coastline.

Jan 1, 1958

By Gary Brieley

Until well into the 20th century, most construction work was performed under the auspices of a master builder or in a manner that would be described today as design-build. In addition, many civil engineers served as ?interns? under the tutelage of a master builder in order to learn how to design and construct a certain type of structure. This was certainly the case for tunneling projects with various individuals having been identified as tunneling experts as a result of successfully completed projects The master builder approach began to change in the early 1900s to a model that would be referred to today as design-bid-build. A design-bid-build approach to project procurement gives the owner more control over the final product and al-lows the contractor to know exactly what is expected of them before the work is constructed. As a result of this transition in project procurement, civil engineering schools placed a greater emphasis on the training of ?design? professionals. This article will document how the training of tunnel design professionals progressed within the United States. Although it is difficult to generalize about the hundreds of tunnels that were constructed in the first four decades of the 20th century, there is one project that stands out as having resulted in a university program related directly to tunneling and that is the Chicago Subway. During a visit to the United States in 1938, Dr. Karl Terzaghi met a student named Ralph Peck who was then studying at Harvard University in a pro-gram established by Arthur Casagrande. Shortly thereafter, Terzaghi traveled to Chicago for a lecture and was asked to consult on the Chicago subway project that was then under construction. The Chicago subway was being constructed in clay, and the owners were worried about possible settlements to nearby buildings. Terzaghi asked Peck to serve as his field engineer for that project. Thus was established one of the most productive relationships in the history of civil engineering in the United States. Peck, who would become Dr. Peck, moved to Chicago in 1939 to participate in an extensive research project that con-tinued until subway construction was halted in 1941 because of World War II. During that time, the cost of subway construction in Chicago was reduced substantially as a result of Peck?s observations and Terzaghi?s recommendations. In fact, it was reported that subway construction in Chicago cost less than one-half of similar projects in London even though the clay in London is considerably stiffer compared to Chicago. Upon the completion of his work on the Chicago Subway, Peck accepted a professorship with the University of Illinois in Champaign/Urbana.

Jun 1, 2010

By R. Jacob Cefalo, Miguel Valenzuela

The modern drill and blast engineer operates in an environment often rich with data from drilling data and blast designs vs. actuals to fragmentation distributions and vibration records. Despite this abundance, much of the information generated remains underutilized, often collected as a matter of routine rather than for a means to an end. This paper explores how artificial intelligence (AI) can bridge that gap, transforming raw operational information into actionable insights that lead to more consistent and optimized blasting outcomes. Through AI-driven analysis of drilling logs, burden and spacing measurements in design vs. actual, fragmentation distributions, and vibration records, we can identify hidden patterns and correlations that traditional analytics overlook or that we may not be aware of. These insights enable engineers to proactively adjust designs and loading strategies, ultimately improving performance aspects such as improving fragmentation, minimizing ground vibration, and lowering overall operational costs. The paper examines the industry's reliance on lagging indicators, such as post-blast fragmentation surveys or actual powder factors, and suggests the need to shift toward leading indicators like real-time drill data monitoring and predictive fragmentation modeling. Utilizing AI to forecast outcomes before a blast is carried out allows engineers to take corrective actions early in the process, thereby creating a feedback loop that continuously improves performance. This integration of AI into drilling and blasting practices marks a pivotal opportunity for the explosives engineering field to evolve from reactive to predictive methodologies unlocking a new level of operational intelligence and value creation.

Jan 26, 2026

By Selvaganesh Selvaraju, Deepak Raj, Sandun N. Wimalasena

One of the world leading oil majors is carrying out a multi-billion-dollar expansion of its integrated manufacturing complex in Jurong Island, Singapore, the global oil trading and refining hub. Soil conditions at the site comprise 10-20m thick reclaimed sand, below which is 3-5m of soft marine clay underlain by stiff soils of the Jurong Formation. The conventional foundation solution would adopt driven precast concrete spun piles; however, precast spun piles have a high embodied carbon from the usage of steel and cement. In order to reduce the carbon footprint, an alternative solution comprising deep vibro techniques was developed. The EFFC-DFI carbon calculator was used to demonstrate the expected scope 1, 2 and 3 carbon emissions for both driven pile and vibro techniques. By using in-house, state-of-the-art fuel-efficient machines, alongside the innovative design concept and usage of natural materials such as sand and stones, actual CO2e emissions were reduced from a potential 21,000 tonnes, with the spun pile’s solution, to only 1,900 tonnes. The saved 20,100 tCO2e is equivalent to an average car driving 2,000x around the Earth’s equator. The paper discusses the application of soil improvement as a more sustainable, lower carbon alternative to conventional piled solutions.

May 1, 2022

Minerals are vital to any industrialized civilization. Annually, the United States uses more than 4 billion tons of new mineral materials, or about 40,000 pounds per person-about half being mineral fuels and the other half being metals and nonmetallics. Stable and economic domestic mining, mineral, metal, and mineral reclamation industries are essential to the economy. The value of United States energy and processed materials of mineral origin exceeds $200 billion annually. Although a number of minerals are imported, especially some designated as "strategic and critical," most U.S. mineral supplies are derived from the domestic mines and processing facilities that you will be seeing, reading about, and visiting as you use this visitor guide. We hope you enjoy your experiences. This pamphlet, a guide to mining and mineral operations that may be observed or visited and some other points of interest relating to minerals, is intended to aid tourists and students who are interested in mining. Some may wish to study our Nation's romantic past; others may plan to enter the minerals industry as a career; still others may have a primary interest in conservation practices. The pamphlet is also intended to aid State and local officials, Chambers of Commerce, and mining firms in answering some of the many questions of tourists and students.

Jan 1, 1977

By T. Shibasaki, S. Kamio, K. Kanamori

"Mitsubishi Process has been proven through fifteen years operation to be highly productive, cost efficient and easy to abate environmental requirements. However, in order the process to remain competitive from now on, it should also be adaptable to a variety of varying conditions. Various test works have been conducted from such a stand point of view and some of the new concepts have been implemented to the actual operation.The paper discusses the adaptability of the process to the change of concentrate grade with respect to copper and also impurities, acceptability of the secondary materials and the potential to increase unit capacity. IntroductionThe first commercial plant of Mitsubishi Process with 48,000 mt copper annual capacity started its operation at Naoshima Smelter of Mitsubishi Metal Corporation in 1974, and the second plant with 65,000 st annual capacity started in 1981, at Kidd Smelter, Timmins, Ontario, now Kidd Creek Division of Falconbridge Limited 2. These plants have increased their capacities to 90,000 mtpa respectively by adding oxygen and acid plant capacities while maintaining the original furnace design uncharged. Thereby both smelters have established more cost efficient operations. (3), (4)Mitsubishi Process applies so-called multi-furnace continuous system. Figure 1 shows conceptual flowsheet. Backgrounds that required and justified the development of such system are as follows:"

Jan 1, 1988

By Judson G. Brown

In the May, 1969 issue of Mining Engineering the Editorial Director, John V. Beall, described the Japanese Onahama Copper Smelter and Refinery as follows: "On the shore of the Pacific, 120 miles north of Tokyo, is the world's most modern copper smelter and refinery.? One of the improvements that has been made at the Onahama Refinery is the quality of the electrolyte in the copper refinery electrolytic cells. This has been accomplished by reducing the concentration of slimes in the cells between the electrodes. In a December 19, 1966 review in Chemical Engineering magazine reference was made to some tests in Sweden as follows: ?However, at 1,000 amps/sq.M., satisfactory cathodes could be prepared, provided electrolyte flow past the anode and cathode was at least 3 to 4 meters per minute, and the slime content was not allowed to exceed 20 to 30 mg. per liter. By dropping the current to 500 amps with the same electrolyte velocity, the slime content could grow to 50 mg. per liter (50 ppm) without causing occlusion at the cathode." From this data it appears that the production capacity of copper refining electrolytic cells can be significantly increased. In order to do this the concentration of suspended contaminating slimes in the electrolyte solution is reduced by filtration. The electrolyte in-between the active electrodes must be purged with higher velocities to maintain a high concentration of the desirable copper ion in the liquid film adjacent to the cathode and the sulfate ion in the liquid film at the anode. This higher velocity also carries away from the cathode the undesirable impurities released from the anode as they are released into the electrolyte as filterable solids.

Jan 1, 1970

Direct electrowinning is an electrochemical process which has been developed for the extractive recovery of copper from dilute, acidic leach solutions. In passing through a thin particulate coke cathode. copper is reduced and electrodeposited in a thin layer forming a solid copper-coke sheet. The product is melted in a furnace to separate the coke, then the molten copper is fire refined to produce a salable product. A description is given of a prototype unit which is designed to treat 20 gpm leach liquor and recover over 100 pounds of copper per day. Economic analyses show that in a commercial facility producing about 25.000 TPY copper.*the direct electrowinning process has lower overall cost than either conventional iron-cementation or the newer liquid ion exchange-electrowinning when the leach liquors contain less than 2 grams per liter of copper.

Jan 1, 1976

By Arnold E. Lamm

The degree of economic, progress of a nation is measured by its possession and use of energy, sources. The future of coal in the West hinges on its ability to participate and grow in the energy market. A source of energy is, in the long run, only as good as the ability of the industry to develop its reserves economically. The economic development of the tremendous coal reserves, literally hundreds of billions of tons of coal in the States of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico, and Arizona, poses a very real question in the light of the known mining technology of our day. Basically in America today, coal is mined from the earth either by the strip mine or underground mine method; in the West, the large long-term, contracts now in force with utilities are mostly from coal mines utilizing the strip mine method. However, the preponderance of the known coal reserves of the West are located deep underground and will have to be mined by the various; underground mining processes. The problems encountered in the West with regard to underground mining vary from state to state but, on the whole, do not present what might be considered a miner's bonanza. I do not mean to' infer that the underground coal of the West is unmineable, but I do want to emphasize that the tremendous reserve figures do not present a true picture in the light of present day technology.

Jan 1, 1965

Contract No. H0110929 was awarded by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in February, 1971, to DeTer Company, Incorporated, of Mountain Lakes, N. J. The contract provided for the modification of the contractor's Model 5000 Pressure Foam Generator to fit it for the suppression of coal dust in mines, a detailed testing program in a working coal mine, and for additional modifications and testing for the suppression of fires in coal mines. The contractual program was completed in April, 1972. The results of the dust suppression tests showed conclusively that the modified DeTer equipment effectively reduced the level of respirable dust in a working coal mine well below the present and future acceptable levels set by the Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969. The fire tests, carried out in a simulated mine entryway erected on the surface, demonstrated the ability of the DeTer equipment in suppressing fires of varying degrees of severity within an acceptably short time.

Jan 1, 1972

By J. Sidhom, W. Fourie

"As the mining industry continues to face difficult challenges the need to persistently focus on productivity and utilization of labor and equipment costs will intensify. With these challenges in mind, Komatsu is helping to bring mining performance and analytics to the next level.By evaluating underground haulage, a significant component of the room and pillar mining value stream, variables have been identified and sensitivities have been performed to show opportunities to balance and streamline throughput. As a result of applying operational excellence tools to the mining environment, Komatsu is seeking to optimize mining performances by limiting waste, simplifying the process, increasing productivity and machine utilization, as well as removing workers from harm’s way.These days it’s not enough to work harder; mines have to work smarter. Improving efficiency, reducing costs, increasing safety: these are no longer nice to haves, they are must haves.Starting with the best products and the right people is a first step, but then what? How do mines take their operations from average to being a top performer? By using operational excellence principles aimed at eliminating waste, simplifying processes, automating where possible and removing people from harm’s way.The fundamentals of operational excellence (OpEx) are based upon the process of define, measure, analyze, improve and control (DMAIC). DMAIC is an improvement cycle that helps with, for example, haulage optimization by: defining the issues and problems in the process as well as the areas of improvement; measuring and collecting mining operational data by time study and equipment monitoring system; analyzing through sensitivities and production modelling to determine root causes and then improving the performance and controlling the operation.Komatsu uses OpEx or lean principles inside its organization to drive efficiency, but it also helps its customers employ them to achieve new levels of productivity and safety.These same principles can be applied in most situations to streamline processes, improve operations and deliver value."

Jan 12, 2017

By Houquan Zhang, Yu Wu, Yanlong Chen, Zhenfu Luo, Aihong Lu

"A non-destructive detection scheme for bolt installation quality was designed by adopting the method of non-destructive detection on bolt installation quality. Based on the field measurements, a random non-destructive detection method for determining the characteristic length including anchoring length, free segment length and initial axial load of bolt was discussed, and the characteristics of increasing bolt axial load in the initial stable stage was obtained. The results show that the bolt axial load and deformation of surrounding rocks correlate each other. Compared with the traditional detection technique for bolt installation quality, the non-destructive detection method has obvious advantages such as random, accuracy, and economic. The method provides a reliable basis for bolt support optimization and stability control of surrounding rocks.INTRODUCTIONBolt support in roadway can make the surrounding rocks and bolt form a structure in the early stage of roadway development through the bolt pre-tension, which can maximize the self-bearing capacity of surrounding rocks. Thus it is a form of active support (Kang, 2007). In order to make the bolt play an active supporting role, it needs to ensure the installation quality of bolting. Thus the bolts can supply a high initial anchoring force and control the deformation of surrounding rocks (Shan, 2009; Wei, 2012). Moreover, bolt supporting is a concealed work. Once installation quality problems appear; it will be difficult for effective detection and screening (Xie, 2008).THE PROBLEMS OF BOLT INSTALLATION QUALITY IN COAL MINE AND ITS DETECTIONThe Problems of the In Situ Bolt InstallationDue to the problems in installation environment, machine, and technique, and workers proficiency (Li, 2003), there are many problems exist in bolt installation. If the borehole depth is too long, the anchoring agent will accumulate at the bottom of the bore, which reduces the anchoring length. Furthermore, if the borehole depth is short due to the poor geological condition, the exposed part of the bolt will be too Jong and the pallet cannot cling to the rock face, which prevent the pre-tension from being applied. The pre-tension is very important for bolt installation. If pre-tension is insufficient the rock bolt cannot control the deformation of surrounding rock efficiently and the bolt anchoring force will decrease considerably. The bolt length is another important parameter for anchoring quality, which will affect the control area of bolt supporting. In addition, the cleanness of drill hole has a great influence on the effective anchorage length of bolt. If the drill hole cleaning is not enough, it will directly affect the anchoring agent and the contact area of surrounding rocks, which will decrease the effective anchorage length and initial anchor-force."

Jan 1, 2016

During the past three years Lurgi's Circulating Fluid Bed (CFB) technology has been successfully applied to roasting of refractory gold ores and con- centrates. In comparison with the so-called Stationary Fluid Bed roasting systems, a considerable improvement of gold recovery, to around 95 per cent, has been demonstrated and achieved on many occasions in pilot CFB units and in commercial CFB roasting plants as well. The major reason for such improved gold recoveries is the excellent controllability of the roasting process in the CFB reactor system. Here, temperature, gas atmosphere and solids residence time are more precisely controllable at optimal values during roasting operation in order to achieve the highest possible gold recovery in the subsequent leaching process step. Further dominant benefits of CFB roasting systems are their flexibility with regard to feed material, throughput capacity, dry or slurry feed, almost unlimited oxygen enrichment, direct fuel addition and in situ capture of SO2 in the presence of limestone and dolomite. The system will accept 50 per cent turndown ratio, large variations in feed composition and particle size, as well as a variety of different fuel types. The commercial applications of CFB roasting systems for gold con- centrates have been realized so far at Fimiston, Kalgoorlie/Westem Australia and for whole ores at Cortez, Nevada/USA.

Jan 1, 1991

By Frank E. Chase, John Rusnak, David Newman

During the past quarter century, coal mine geologists have evolved from providing a qualitative description of drill core and coal reserves into quantitative geotechnical specialists who bridge the gap between geology and engineering. In the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, hazard prediction mapping was in its infancy. At best, hazard maps identified rudimentary structures and conditions such as stream valley locations, sandstone/shale transition zones, and lineaments. A “technical disconnect” had existed between geologists and mining engineers as each profession operated largely independent of each other. Engineers did not readily integrate geology and geologic conditions, with the exception of coal thickness, into mine planning. Geologists were relied upon for reserve estimates and did not participate in mine planning or design. The employment and market slump of the 1980’s and 1990’s combined with mining more challenging reserves mandated that this gap be bridged and forced geologists to learn to speak more “numerically” to engineers so they could be understood. The purpose of this paper is to describe the procedures and thought processes used by coal mine geologists when determining various mineability and reserve extraction feasibility issues. The paper will also address underground geologic hazard mapping and prediction techniques. To achieve these objectives, the opinions and experiences of leading coal mine geologists, geotechnical and strata control specialists across the United States were solicited.

By C. R. Hubbard

The Bureau of Mines investigated the mineral resources of the Upper Missouri River Basin as a part of a comprehensive water and related land resources study by six Bureaus of the Department of the Interior, coordinated by the Department?s Missouri River Basin Field Committee. The mineral resource study covers an area of about 18,000 square miles within the Great Plains physiographic province of central Montana. Exposed formations in the plains are chiefly flat-lying Cretaceous sediments. Plutonic rocks crop out in the central parts of the mountain uplifts, with steeply tilted Paleozoic sediments exposed around the margins. Oil and gas have been produced from several fields in the study area; total value exceeds $45 million. Coal-bearing formations of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous age cover approximately 45 percent of the study area. Total production of coal since 1880 has been between 40 and 50 million tons, exceeding $75 million in value. Total metal production has been about $52.5 million. Industrial mineral production from 1925 through 1960, is valued at $24 million.

Jan 1, 1964

By C. R. Hubbard

The Bureau of Mines investigated the mineral resources of the Upper Missouri River Basin as a part of a comprehensive water and related land resources study by six Bureaus of the Department of the Interior, coordinated by the Department's Missouri River Basin Field Committee. The mineral resource study covers an area of about 18,000 square miles within the Great Plains physiographic province of central Montana. Exposed Formations in the plains are chiefly flat-lying Cretaceous sediments. Plutonic rocks crop out in the central parts of the mountain uplifts, with steeply tilted Paleozoic sediments exposed around the margins. Oil and gas have been produced from several fields in the study area; total value exceeds $45 million. Coal-bearing formations of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous age cover approximately 45 percent of the study area. Total production of coal since 1880 has been between 40 and 50 million tons, exceeding $75 million in value. Total metal production has been about $52.5 million. Industrial mineral production from 1925 through 1960, is valued at $24 million.

Jan 1, 1964

By A. W. Deurbrouck

The Bureau of Mines analyzed 13 samples collected from three Randolph County coalbeds. The Peerless and Sewell bed samples were generally of metallurgical quality as received from the mines or could be easily upgraded. How-ever, the Lower Kittanning coa1bed samples proved to be quite inimical to upgrading to metallurgical quality.

Jan 1, 1966

By Zhiwei Jiao, Ziqing Guo, Mushen Wang, Yueda Fang, Qiuming Tang

In order to achieve anti-terrorism, production safety, better explosive performance, lower cost, and environment protection, we developed HMS (emulsification in borehole).Long-process PM (plant-mixed) and SM (site-mixed) emulsion trucks are reviewed and compared to a new type of short-process HM (hole-mixed) truck for onsite emulsion manufacturing. The short-process HM truck has demonstrated many advantages over its PM and SM counterparts in areas such as process safety and security, energy efficiency and environmental impacts: 1) No emulsion matrix is manufactured in the plant, transported on public roads, or even present on the surfaces of blasting job sites. Such characteristics are certainly beneficial in eliminating risks of the product being diverted and used by unlawful players; 2) This short-process involves "micro-fluid control to form super oil phase-rich" in tubular emulsification process, making it intrinsically safe; 3) There is basically no residual matrix left in the truck or on the job site to clean up, which greatly reduces environmental impact of the process; 4) Comparing with typical PM and SM trucks, the HM truck has eliminated the needs of many power equipment and critical pump pressure for turbulent flow forming a static emulsification with super oil phase -rich is only 0.2Mpa. These is therefore quite energy efficient.

Feb 1, 2020